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THE  ART  OF  THE  GREEKS 


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THE  APHRODITE  OF  MELOS 
; ..;!)VRE) 


THE  ART  OF 

THE  GREEKS 

By 

H.  B.  WALTERS 


WITH  1 12  PLATES  AND 
1 8 ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 


NEW  YORK 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
LONDON:  METHUEN  AND  CO. 

1906 


First  Published  in  igo6 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

List  of  Plates  .........  ix 

Preface  .........  xiii 

Bibliography  .........  xv 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  GREEK  ART 

PAGES 

Modern  study  of  Greek  Art — Limits  of  the  Subject — Winckelmann  and  Ancient 
Art — Character  of  Greek  Art — Originality  and  Idealism — Plastic  Charac- 
ter— Influence  of  Religion  and  Athletics — Division  into  Periods — Origins 
— Archaic  Period  — Best  Period — Period  of  Decline — Chronological 

Scheme  . . . . . . . . .1-10 

CHAPTER  II 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 

Early  Greek  Art  and  Recent  Discoveries  — Bronze  Age  Civilisation — The 
Mycenaean  People — Early  Remains  of  Troy  and  the  Greek  Islands — 

Crete  and  Minos — Mycenae  and  its  Remains — Metal- Work  and  Painting 
— Literary  Traditions — Art  in  Homer — The  Chest  of  Kypselos — Oriental 
Influence  (Egypt,  Assyria^  Phoenicia)  .....  11-28 

CHAPTER  III 

GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 

Prehistoric  Architecture — Palaces  at  Tiryns  and  Knossos — The  Beginnings  of 
the  Temple — The  Doric  Style  and  its  Characteristics — Typical  Doric 
Temples — The  Parthenon — Methods  of  Construction — The  Ionic  Style 
— Temples  at  Athens  and  in  Asia  Minor — The  Corinthian  Style — Secular 
Buildings  .........  29-52 


S 0 f o 


V 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  IV 

GREEK  SCULPTURE:  INTRODUCTORY 

Literary  Records  of  Greek  Sculpture — Monumental  Evidence — Lost  and  Exist- 
ing Sculptures — Originals,  Copies,  and  Imitations — Materials  Employed 
— Wood,  Gold  and  Ivory,  and  Marble — Models  and  Tools — Polishing 
and  Colouring — Reliefs — Technical  Processes  in  Bronze  . 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  RISE  OF  GREEK  SCULPTURE  (600-480  b.c.) 

Early  Cult-Images  — Adherence  to  Conventional  Types  — Athletic  Statues — 
Technical  Inventions — The  Dorian  School — The  Ionian  School — Argos 
— Athens — The  Aeginetan  School  . . . . . 


CHAPTER  VI 

PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 

Rise  of  Monumental  Sculpture  — Kalamis,  Pythagoras,  and  Myron  — The 
Olympia  Sculptures — Pheidias — The  Sculptures  of  the  Parthenon — 
Other  Attic  Sculptures  and  Sculptors  — Polykleitos  — Architectural 
Monuments  ........ 


CHAPTER  VII 

GREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 

Characteristics  of  Fourth-Century  Sculpture — Praxiteles — The  Hermes — Skopas 
— Sculpture  in  Asia  Minor — The  Mausoleum — Other  Fourth-Century 
Sculptors — Lysippos — Attic  Sepulchral  Reliefs — The  Sidon  Sarcophagi 
— The  Hellenistic  Age — The  Schools  of  Rhodes  and  Pergamon — The 
Laocoon — The  Aphrodite  of  Melos  and  other  existing  Works — Genre 
Subjects  and  Reliefs  ....... 


PAGES 


53-69 


70-88 


89-114 


115-138 


VI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VIII 
GREEK  PAINTING 

Technical  Methods — Early  History  of  Painting — Literary  Records — Painting  in 
Ionia  and  at  Corinth  — Attic  Tombstones — Polygnotos  — Apollodoros, 
Zeuxis,  and  Parrhasios — The  Fourth-Century  Schools — Apelles  and  Pro- 
togenes— Painting  in  the  Hellenistic  Age — Landscapes  and  Genre  Sub- 
jects— Etruscan  Paintings  ...... 


CHAPTER  IX 
GREEK  VASES 

Greek  Origin,  not  Etruscan  — Uses  of  Greek  Vases  — Shapes  — Technical 
Methods — Classification — Primitive  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Fabrics — Attic 
Black-Figured  Vases — The  Red-Figure  Period — White-Ground  Vases^ — - 
Vase-Painting  in  Southern  Italy — Decadence  of  the  Art  . 


CHAPTER  X 
GREEK  TERRA-COTTAS 

Terra-Cotta  in  Architecture  — Origin  of  Sculpture  in  Clay — Primitive  and 
Archaic  Types  — Technical  Processes — Uses  — Tanagra  Statuettes  — 
Types  and  Subjects — Differences  of  Styles  and  Fabrics — Forgeries 


CHAPTER  XI 
GREEK  GEM  ENGRAVING 

Oriental  Use  of  Precious  Stones — Signets  and  Cylinders — Cretan  and  My- 
cenaean Gem-Engraving — Island  Stones — Scarabs  and  Ionian  Gems — 
Gem-Engraving  of  the  Archaic  and  Finest  Periods — Scaraboids — Hel- 
lenistic Intaglios  — Artists’  Signatures  — Cameos  and  Vases  — Gem- 
Engraving  in  Etruria  — Technical  Details — Modern  Imitations  and 

Forgeries  ......... 

• • 
VI 1 


PAGES 


139-160 


161-183 


184-202 


203-221 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XII 
GREEK  COINS 

Use  of  Study  of  Greek  Coins — Artistic  Features — Invention  of  Coinage — Techni- 
cal Processes — Inscriptions — Coin-types  and  their  Meaning — Character  of 
Coins  of  Different  Countries — Italy  and  Sicily — Greece  and  Asia  Minor — 
Chronological  Classification  and  Artistic  Development 


CHAPTER  XIII 
GREEK  METAL-WORK 

Origin  of  Metal-working  in  Greece — Bronze,  Gold,  and  Silver  and  their  Use — 
Mycenaean  Metal-work  and  Jewellery — Rise  of  Gold-working  in  Greece 
and  Etruria — Etruscan  Jewellery — Etruscan  Bronze  Mirrors  and  Cistae — 
Greek  Bronze-work — Greek  Gold-work  of  Best  Period — Jewellerv  from 
the  Crimea — Forgeries — Silver-chasing  in  the  Hellenistic  Age 


PAGES 


222-242 


243-266 


Index 


267 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


Frontispiece — Tlie  Aphrodite  of  Melos 

PLATE  PAGE 

I.  Painted  Pottery  of  ‘ Minoan  ’ Style  ..... 

II.  Gold  Ornaments  from  Mycenae  (Athens  Museum)  . . . 13 

HI.  Cretan  Fresco-paintings  (from  Knossos)  ....  16 

IV.  Faience  Vases  and  part  of  Ivory  Casket  from  Enkomi,  Cyprus  (British 

Museum)  .......  17 

V.  The  Vaphio  Gold  Cups  (Athens  Museum)  ....  18 

VI.  Engraved  Dagger-blades  from  Mycenae  (Athens  Museum)  . . 19 

VII.  Mycenaean  Painted  Pottery  . . . . . .22 

VIII.  The  Lion  Gate  at  Mycenae  . . . . . .23 

IX.  Galleries  in  the  Palace  at  Tiryns  .....  30 

X.  The  Temple  of  Poseidon  at  Paestum  ....  31 

XI.  The  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Phigaleia  (Bassae)  ...  38 

XII.  The  ‘ Theseion  ^ at  Athens  ......  39 

XIII.  The  Parthenon  .......  42 

XIV.  The  Temple  of  Athena  Nike,  Acropolis,  Athens  ...  43 

XV.  The  Erechtheion,  Athens  ......  48 

XVI.  The  Mausoleum,  Halikarnassos  (Restoration  by  Petersen)  . . 49 

XVII.  The  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysikrates,  Athens  ...  50 

XVIII.  The  Theatre  of  Dionysos,  Athens  .....  51 

XIX.  Early  Female  Statues  from  Samos  and  Naxos  . . . 70 

XX.  The  Apollo  of  Tenea  (Munich)  and  the  Stele  of  Aristion  (Athens)  . 71 

XXI.  The  Nike  of  Archermos  (Athens  Museum)  ....  74 

XXII.  Metopes  from  Temples  at  Selinus  .....  75 

XXIII.  The  ‘ Harpy  ’ Tomb  (British  Museum)  ....  78 

XXIV.  Seated  Figure  from  Branchidae  (British  Museum)  ...  79 

XXV.  Poros-pediment  from  the  Acropolis,  Athens  ...  82 

XXVI.  Female  Statue  from  the  Acropolis,  Athens  ....  83 

XXVII.  Figures  from  the  Aegina  Pediments  (Munich  Museum)  . . 86 

XXVIII.  The  Bronze  Charioteer  from  Delphi  .....  90 

XXIX.  The  Ludovisi  Throne  (Museo  delle  Terme,  Rome)  ...  91 

XXX.  The  Diskobolos  of  Myron  (Palazzo  Lancelotti,  Rome)  . . 92 

XXXI.  Figures  from  the  West  Pediment,  Olympia  ....  93 

XXXII.  Metope  from  the  Temple  of  Zeus,  Olympia  ....  96 

XXXIII.  The  Varvakeion  Statuette  of  Athena  (Athens  Museum)  . . 97 

XXXIV.  The  ‘ Theseus  ’ from  the  east  pediment  of  Parthenon  (British  Museum)  100 


IX 


LIST  OF  PLATES 

PLATE  PAGE 

XXXV.  The  Group  of  ‘ Three  Fates"  from  the  same  . . • 101 

XXXVI.  Horsemen  from  the  Parthenon  Frieze  ....  102 

XXXVII.  Slabs  from  the  East  Frieze  of  the  Parthenon  . . .103 

XXXVIII.  Caryatid  from  the  Erechtheion  (British  Museum)  . . . 106 

XXXIX.  Victory  from  tlie  Balustrade  of  the  Nike  Temple,  Athens  . . 107 

XL.  The  Hermes  Propylaios  of  Alkamenes,  and  the  ‘ Mourning  Athena " 

(Athens  Museum)  . . . . • .108 

XLi.  The  Nike  of  Paionios  (Olympia  Museum)  ....  109 

xLii.  Busts  of  Pericles  and  Alexander  the  Great  (British  Museum)  . 110 

XLiii.  The  Diadumenos  and  Doryphoros  of  Polykleitos  . . . HI 

XLiv.  The  Hermes  of  Praxiteles  (Olympia  Museum)  . . . 114 

XLv.  The  Aphrodite  of  the  Vatican,  and  the  Demeter  of  Knidos  (British 

Museum)  .......  118 

xLvi.  Bronze  Heads  of  Aphrodite  (.?)  and  Hypnos  (British  Museum)  . 119 

xLvii.  Group  of  Niobe  and  daughter  (Florence),  and  Charioteer  from  the 

Mausoleum  Frieze  (British  Museum)  . . . .120 

XLviii.  Statue  of  Mausolos  (British  Museum)  ....  121 

xLix.  The  Agias  and  Apoxyomenos  of  Lysippos  . . . .124 

L.  Sepulchral  Reliefs  of  Hegeso  and  Dexileos  (Athens  Museum)  . 125 

Li.  The  Alexander  Sarcophagus  from  Sidon  (Constantinople  Museum)  . 128 

Lii.  The  Dying  Gaul  (Vatican)  . . . . . .129 

LIU.  Slabs  from  the  Pergamene  Frieze  (Berlin  Museum)  . . .130 

Liv.  The  Laocoon  Group  (Vatican)  . . . . .131 

Lv.  The  Nike  of  Samothrace  (Louvre)  .....  134 

Lvi.  Bronze  Statue  from  Kythera  (Athens  Museum)  . . 135 

Lvii.  Statuettes  of  Hellenistic  Style  . . . . .138 

Lviii.  Hellenistic  Relief  (British  Museum)  . . . .139 

Lix.  Fresco-painting  from  Tiryns  . . . . .140 

LX.  Early  Corinthian  Paintings  . . . . . .141 

Lxi.  Part  of  painted  Sarcophagus  from  Clazomenae  (British  Museum)  . 146 

LX  1 1.  Athenian  Paintings  ......  147 

Lxiii.  Wall-Painting  from  a Tomb  at  Cervetri  (British  Museum)  . . 148 

Lxiv.  Vase-painting  in  the  Style  of  Polygnotos  (Louvre)  . . .149 

Lxv.  Pompeian  Wall-painting — Herakles  Strangling  the  Serpents  . 154 

Lxvi.  Mosaic  representing  the  Battle  of  the  Issus  (Pompeii)  . . 155 

Lxvii.  Painting  from  Herculaneum  by  Alexandros  . . .160 

Lxviii.  Painting  from  Sarcophagus  at  Corneto  . . . .161 

Lxix.  Geometrical  Vase  of  ‘ Dipylon " Style  ....  168 

Lxx.  Ionic  Vase  Paintings  (Bibliothkpie  Nationale,  Paris)  . . 109 

Lxxi.  Corinthian  Vases  (British  Museum)  . . . . .170 


X 


LIST  OF  PLATES 

PLATE  PAGE 

Lxxii.  The  Francois  Vase  (Florence)  . . . . .171 

Lxxiii.  Panathenaic  Amphora  (British  Museum)  . . . . 172 

Lxxiv.  Amphora  by  Nikosthenes,  and  Vase-painting  by  Exekias  (Louvre)  173 
Lxxv.  Vase-Painting  by  Euphronios  (Munich  Museum)  . . .176 

Lxxvi.  Vase-Paintings  by  Duris  and  Hieron  . . . .177 

Lxxvii.  Vase  by  Meidias  (British  jMuseum)  . . . .178 

Lxxviii.  Vases  with  Painting  on  White  Ground  (British  Museum)  . . 179 

Lxxix.  Vases  of  Southern  Italy  . . . . . .182 

Lxxx.  Terra-cotta  Antefixal  Ornaments  from  Italy  (British  Museum)  . 184 

Lxxxi.  Terra-cotta  Toys  and  Dolls  (British  Museum)  . . .185 

Lxxxii.  ‘ Melian  **  Reliefs  (British  Museum)  ....  188 

Lxxxiii.  Archaic  Greek  Terra-cottas  (British  Museum)  . . .189 

Lxxxiv.  Tanagra  Statuettes  (British  Museum)  . . . .192 

Lxxxv.  Terra-cotta  Groups  of  Third  Century  Style  (British  Museum)  . 193 

Lxxxvi.  Statuettes  from  Myrina  and  the  Cyrenaica  (British  Museum)  . 196 

Lxxxvii.  Statuettes  from  Cyprus  and  Sicily  (British  Museum)  . . 197 

Lxxxviii.  Mycenaean  Gems  and  ‘ Island-Stones  ’ . . . . 206 

Lxxxix.  Graeco-Phoenician  and  Ionic  Gems  ....  207 

xc.  Archaic  Greek  Gems  . . . . . .210 

xci.  Gems  of  Fifth  Century  Style  . . . . .211 

xcii.  Later  Greek  Gems  . . . . . . .214 

xciii.  Etruscan  Gems  .......  215 

xciv.  Archaic  Coins  (Asia  Minor  and  Greece)  ....  226 

xcv.  Archaic  Coins  (Italy  and  Sicily)  .....  227 

xcvi.  Coins  of  the  Fifth  Century  (Asia  Minor  and  Greece)  . . 230 

xcvii.  Coins  of  Sicily  (Fifth  Century)  .....  231 

xcviii.  Coins  of  the  Fourth  Century  (Asia  Minor  and  Greece)  . . 234 

xcix.  Coins  of  the  P'ourth  Century  (Crete  and  Western  Greece)  . . 235 

c.  Coins  of  the  Hellenistic  Period  .....  238 

ci.  Cbins  of  the  Graeco-Roman  Period  ....  239 

cii.  Early  Gold  Ornaments  from  the  ‘ Aegina  Treasure  ’ (British  Museum)  246 
cm.  Etruscan  Gold  Ornaments  (British  Museum)  . . . 247 

CIV.  Etruscan  Engraved  Mirrors  (British  Museum)  . . . 252 

cv.  Greek  Engraved  Bronzes  (British  Museum)  . . . 253 

cvi.  The  Siris  Bronzes  and  Heroic  Figure  from  Bracciano  (British  Museum)  254 
evil.  Greek  Bronze  Reliefs  (British  Museum)  ....  255 

cviii.  Greek  Gold-work  of  the  Fifth  Century  (British  Museum)  . . 260 

cix.  Gold  Ornaments  from  the  Crimea  (St.  Petersburg) . . . 261 

cx.  Later  Greek  Gold  Ornaments  (British  Museum)  . . . 262 

CXI.  Hellenistic  Silver  Work  (British  Museum)  . . . 263 


XI 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Plan  of  the  Palace  at  Tiryns  .....  31 

2.  Temple  in  Antis  .......  35 

3.  Prostyle  Temple  .......  35 

4.  Amphiprostyle  Temple  ......  35 

5.  Peripteral  Temple  .......  36 

6.  Dipteral  Temple  .......  36 

7.  Pseud operipteral  Temple  ......  36 

8.  Part  of  the  Athenian  Acropolis,  with  Plans  of  Parthenon  (A), 

Erechtheion  (B),  and  Old  Temple  of  Athena  (C)  . . 41  • 

9.  Diagram  of  Doric  Entablature  (from  the  Theseion)  . . 44 

10.  (a)  Ionic  Entablature  ; (6)  Ionic  Base  (Asiatic  Type)  . . 46 

11.  Bronze  Foundry.  From  a Vase  at  Berlin  ....  67 

12.  Parthenon,  the  East  Pediment.  (Drawing  by  Jacques  Carrey)  . 101 

13.  Parthenon,  the  West  Pediment.  (Drawing  by  Jacques  Carrey)  . 101 

14.  Shapes  of  Vases  .......  164 

15.  Inferior  of  Pottery.  (From  a Vase  at  Munich)  . . . 167 

16.  Scene  in  a Vase-Painter’s  Studio.  (From  a Vase  found  at  Ruvo)  . 168 

17.  Design  on  Mycenaean  Gold  Ring  (enlarged)  . . . 205 

18.  The  Ficoroni  Cista  .......  254 


XU 


PREFACE 


The  author  desires  to  express  his  warmest  acknowledgments  to  the 
following  persons  and  bodies  who  have  kindly  placed  illustrations  at 
his  disposal : — To  the  Committee  of  the  British  School  at  Athens  and 
Dr.  Arthur  Evans  for  permission  to  illustrate  Cretan  pottery  and 
frescoes  (Plates  i.  and  iii.) ; to  the  Council  of  the  Hellenic  Society  for 
similar  facilities  in  regard  to  Plates  i.,  lvi.,  exiii.,  and  i.xviii. ; to 
MM.  Homolle  and  Mowat  for  permission  to  reproduce  Plates  xxviii. 
and  xijx.  (Fig.  2)  from  the  Fouilles  de  Delphes  ; to  Mr.  John  Murray 
for  kind  permission  to  use  his  blocks  for  Figs.  15,  IG  and  Plates  iii., 
Lxxiii.,  Lxxvii.,  and  lxxx.  ; to  Messrs.  Grevel  for  similar  permission 
for  Plate  xxx. ; to  ^Ir.  J.  Pierpont  JNlorgan  for  a photograph  of  the 
bronze  Eros  in  his  possession  (Plate  lvii.).  Permission  to  illustrate 
the  Petworth  head  (p.  119)  was  unfortunately  refused.  Among 
personal  friends  he  desires  to  thank  Mr.  R.  Phene  Spiers,  Prof.  E. 
A.  Gardner,  and  Mr.  J.  ff.  Baker-Penoyre  for  the  loan  of  drawings 
and  photographs,  and  in  particular  Mr.  G.  F.  Hill  for  the  loan  of 
casts  of  coins,  and  for  much  valuable  assistance  in  the  preparation 
of  Chapter  xii.  Thanks  are  also  due  to  JNlessrs.  W.  A.  IMansell  and 
Co.  for  assistance  in  regard  to  many  of  the  photographs ; those 
of  subjects  in  the  British  Museum  are  from  their  collection,  while 
others  have  been  obtained  from  the  English  Photo.  Co.  (Athens), 
Messrs.  Alinari  (Florence),  Anderson  (Rome),  Brogi  (Rome),  Bruck- 
mann  (Munich),  and  other  sources. 

In  the  spelling  of  the  proper  names  throughout  the  work  it  may 

• • • 

Xlll 


PREFACE 

be  felt  that  there  is  a certain  inconsistency  and  want  of  system,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  steer  a middle  course  between  the  absurdities  of  extreme 
pedantry  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  wholesale  Latinising  on  the  other, 
without  incurring  such  a charge  in  a greater  or  less  degree.  Experience 
proves  that  no  one  system  can  entirely  disarm  criticism,  still  less 
command  universal  approval. 

H.  B.  W. 

July  1906. 


s 


XIV 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


GENERAL  WORKS 

A.  Baumeister,  Denkmdler  des  Klassischen  Altertuins.  3 vols.  Munich  and  Leipzig 
1884-1889. 

E.  T.  Cook,  Handbook  to  the  Department  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antuinities,  British 
Museum.  London,  1903. 

J.  G.  Frazer,  Commentary  on  Pausanias.  6 vols.  London,  1898. 

E.  Jex-Blake  and  E.  Sellers,  Pliny  s Chapters  on  Art.  London,  189d. 

A.  S.  Murray,  Handbook  of  Greek  Archaeology.  London,  1892. 

C.  T.  Newton,  Essays  on  Art  and  Archaeology.  London,  1880. 

G.  Perrot,  Histoire  de  1’ Art  dans  k Antiquite.  Vols.  vi.-viii.  In  progress.  Paris,  1894- 
1904. 

S.  Reinach,  The  Story  o f Art  through  the  Ages,  chaps,  iv.-x.  (Eng.  Trans.,  1904). 

F.  B.  Tarbell,  A History  o f Greek  Art.  London,  1890*. 


SPECIAL  PERIODS  AND  SUBJECTS 

H.  R.  Hall,  The  Oldest  Civilisation  of  Greece.  London,  1901. 

C.  Schuchhardt,  Schliemann  s Excavations  (Eng.  Trans.,  1891). 

C.  Tsountas  and  J.  I.  Manatt,  The  Mycenaean  Age.  London  and  Cambridge  (Mass.) 
1897. 

Annual  of  British  School  at  Athens,  Vols.  vii.-x.,  1900-1904  (for  Excavations  in  Crete). 

See  also  Quarterly  Review,  Oct.  1904,  p.  374. 

E.  A.  Gardner,  Handbook  oj  Greek  Sculpture.  2nd  ed.  London,  1906. 

A.  S.  Murray,  History  of  Greek  Sadpture.  2 vols.  London,  1890. 

M.  Collignon,  Histoire  de  la  Sculpture  Grecque.  2 vols.  Paris,  1892-1897. 

A.  S.  Murray,  The  Sculptures  of  the  Parthenon.  London,  1903. 

H.  S.  Jones,  Select  Passages  from  Ancient  Authors  illustrative  of  the  History  of  Greek 
Sculpture.  London,  1895. 

E.  A.  Gardner,  Ancient  Athens.  London,  1902. 

W.  J.  Anderson  and  P.  Spiers,  The  Architecture  of  Greece  and  Rome.  London,  1902. 
P.  Girard,  La  Peinture  Antique  (Bibliotheque  de  TEnseignement  des  Beaux-Arts, 
Paris). 

W.  Smith,  Dictionary  oJ  Antiquities.  3rd  ed.,  art.  Pictura  (for  Painting). 


XV 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


H.  B.  Walters,  Ajicieni  Pottery.  2 vols.  London,  1905. 

British  Museum  Catalogue  of  Vases.  Vols.  ii.-iv.  1893-1896. 

,,  „ Catalogue  of  Terra-cottas.  1903. 

„ „ Catalogue  of  Gems.  1888. 

„ ,,  Catalogue  of  Bronzes.  1 899- 

C.  A.  Hutton,  Greek  Terra-cottas  {Portfolio  Monograph,  No.  48).  London,  1899* 
J.  H.  Middleton,  Ancient  Gems.  Cambridge,  189L 
P.  Gardner,  Types  of  Greek  Corns.  Cambridge,  1883. 

B.  V.  Head,  Historia  Numorum.  London,  1887. 

G.  F.  Hill,  Handbook  o f Greek  and  Roman  Coins.  London,  1899. 

A.  S.  Murray,  Greek  Bronzes  {Portfolio  Monograph,  No.  36).  London,  1898. 


XVI 


THE  ART  OF  THE  GREEKS 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  GREEK  ART 


Modern  Study  of  Greek  Art — Limits  of  the  Subject — Winckelmann  and  Ancient 
Art — Character  of  Greek  Art — Originality  and  Idealism — Plastic  Character — 
Influence  of  Religion  and  Athletics — Division  into  Periods — Origins — Archaic 
Period — Best  Period — Period  of  Decline — Chronological  Scheme. 

The  increased  interest  in  the  study  of  Greek  Art,  which  may 
be  observed  at  the  present  day  not  only  among  classical 
scholars,  but  to  some  extent  among  the  cultured  world  in 
general,  is  for  more  than  one  reason  a matter  for  congratulation. 
It  has  not  only  enlarged  the  world  of  the  scholar,  by  impressing 
upon  him  that  the  study  of  Greek  is  more  than  a matter  of  gram- 
matical rules  and  various  readings,  and  that  he  can,  by  the  aid  of 
archaeology,  reconstruct  the  life  and  environment  of  the  Hellenic  race 
with  greater  reality.  It  has  also  influenced  a wider  circle,  to  whom 
it  demonstrates  how  crreat  a debt  the  modern  world  owes  to  the 
ancient,  not  only  within  the  sphere  of  Art,  but  in  almost  all  forms 
of  culture.  We  are  also  gradually  learning  that  a mere  acquaintance 
with  literary  records  leaves  us  at  best  but  imperfectly  equipped 
with  knowledge  of  the  classical  races,  for  literature  is  necessarily 
limited  in  its  scope ; and  though  we  may  learn  from  it  all  we 
desire  to  know  of  military  or  constitutional  history,  of  philosophy 
or  rhetoric — in  short,  of  Greek  life  in  its  public  and  external  aspect, 
the  true  student  will  desire  more.  He  will  seek  to  know  of  the 
religious  beliefs  and  practices  of  the  nation,  of  details  of  its  social  and 
private  life,  as  well  as  of  its  artistic  attainments. 

In  order  to  acquire  this  knowledge  it  is  necessary  also  to  examine 
such  visible  monuments  of  its  life  as  have  been  handed  down  to 
us,  not  only  in  the  shape  of  works  of  art  strictly  so  called,  but  of 

1 


G.  A.— 1 


THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  GREEK  ART 


every  object  which  can  he  regarded  as  evidence  of  its  productive 
capacity  or  as  an  illustration  of  its  every-day  life.  To  collect, 
classify,  and  interpret  such  material  is  the  work  of  Archaeology. 

Now  this  material  has  been  handed  down  to  us  partly  in  spoken 
language  and  written  documents,  partly  in  manners  and  customs, 
partly  in  remains  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting,  and  the 
subordinate  decorative  arts,  such  as  vases,  coins,  or  gems,  and  it 
is  with  the  latter  class  that  the  study  of  Greek  Art  is  concerned  ; 
with  what  Sir  Charles  Newton  has  styled  the  Monumental  branch 
of  Archaeology.  It  may  indeed  be  argued  in  a utilitarian  age  that 
such  a study  has  no  practical  justification,  inasmuch  as  it  can  do 
nothing  to  solve  modern  problems,  social,  political,  or  intellectual ; 
but  ‘ knowledge  comes  ’ if  ‘ wisdom  lingers,’  and  the  feeling  is 
universal  that  Pope  was  right  in  insisting  that  ‘ the  proper  study 
of  mankind  is  Man.’  And  so  we  desire  to  know  not  only  ourselves 
but  our  forefathers ; not  only  our  own  capacities  and  limitations, 
but  theirs ; human  knowledge  is  not  complete  unless  it  traces  out 
the  past  to  its  utmost  limits  and  in  all  its  achievements. 

The  study  of  Greek  art,  then,  needs  no  apology  from  its 
advocates ; and  all  around,  in  universities,  in  schools,  and  in  other 
systems  of  education,  it  is  beginning  to  find  a recognised  place ; 
nor  must  we  forget  that  it  appeals  in  a high  degree  to  the  artist,  the 
dilettante,  and  the  connoisseur.  The  present  work  cannot  indeed 
claim  to  satisfy  all  these  demands ; its  objects  will  be  sufficiently 
attained  if  the  professed  student  finds  in  it  an  adequate  account  of 
the  rise  and  development  of  each  branch  of  Greek  art ; the  amateur 
a selection  of  monuments  illustrative  of  the  chief  characteristics 
which  each  period  and  each  branch  of  the  subject  exhibits ; and  the 
technical  inquirer  a brief  account  of  the  processes  of  working  in 
the  different  materials. 

It  may  meanwhile  best  serve  the  end  of  imparting,  to  what  may 
seem  to  some  a dry  record  of  facts,  more  intelligibility  and  interest, 
if  it  is  prefaced  by  a few  remarks  of  a general  character.  In  this 
opening  chapter  some  attempt  will  be  made  to  point  out  the  features 
which  mark  off  Greek  art  so  strongly  from  that  of  all  other  nations, 
both  ancient  and  modern,  and  which  combined  to  produce  the  most 
wonderful  creations  the  world  has  ever  witnessed. 

It  must  not  be  ignored  that  Greek  art,  with  all  its  homogeneity, 
covers  a period  of  over  a thousand  years  ; in  fact,  in  the  light  of  recent 
discoveries  we  are  justified  in  largely  extending  the  period,  for  the 
2 


MATERIALS  FOR  STUDY 


earliest  beginnings  of  Greek  civilisation  are  now  reckoned  in  mil- 
lenniums, no  longer  in  centuries,  and  the  continuity  of  this  prehistoric 
culture  with  that  of  historic  Hellas  is  now  generally  recognised. 
And  though  for  our  present  purposes  it  may  suffice  to  close  our  survey 
with  the  introduction  of  Roman  influence  after  the  capture  of  Corinth, 
in  B.c.  146,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  this  very  mingling  of  the  races, 
when  ‘ captive  Greece  enslaved  her  savage  captor  and  introduced  the 
arts  into  rustic  Latium,’^  kept  alive  in  some  measure  the  flame  of 
Greek  art  down  to  the  time  of  Hadrian. 

We  see  then  that  this  art  has  passed  through  many  distinct 
phases,  according  as  it  has  been  aftected  by  the  supremacy  of  diflerent 
races,  by  the  shifting  of  its  centres  of  gravity,  of  political  or  intellectual 
power,  and  by  other  causes.  And  so  the  great  men  of  the  ancient 
world,  from  Pericles  to  Constantine  the  Great,  may  be  taken  as 
landmarks  in  its  artistic  as  well  as  its  political  history.  The  age  of 
Pericles  stands  not  only  for  the  culminating  point  of  the  political  and 
military  supremacy  of  Athens,  but  also  for  the  time  of  the  highest 
products  of  Greek  literary  and  artistic  genius ; side  by  side  with 
Kimon,  Pericles,  and  Alcibiades,  we  rank  Sophocles,  Thucydides,  and 
Pheidias.  The  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great  mark  the  rise  of 
the  individualistic  principle  in  Greek  life,  of  rationalism  in  literature 
and  art,  and  of  a cosmopolitanism  in  all  directions  to  which  before  the 
Macedonian  conquests  Greece  was  entirely  a stranger.  The  supremacy 
of  Julius  Caesar  coincides  with  the  time  when  Greek  art  was  accepted 
as  a factor  in  Roman  civilisation,  just  as  the  writers  of  the  period 
turned  almost  without  exception  to  Greek  literature  for  their  models. 
And  finally,  under  Constantine,  we  see  the  decay  of  pagan  culture 
and  pagan  art  forming  a foundation  on  which,  in  a new  centre,  the 
structure  of  Christian  civilisation  was  reared,  carrying  on  the  traces 
of  Greek  influences  down  through  the  ^liddle  Ages  to  our  own  day. 

But  it  was  Rome  that  introduced  Greek  art  to  the  modern  world. 
At  Rome  almost  alone  were  preserved,  down  to  the  days  of  the 
Renaissance,  such  remains  of  ancient  art  as  had  escaped  the 
ravages  of  barbarism ; and  it  was  in  the  palaces  and  museums  of 
Rome  that  were  collected  the  majority  of  the  sculptures  and  other 
works  of  art  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  the  enthusiastic  explorers 
and  the  connoisseurs  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
In  the  middle  of  the  latter  period  arose  one  who  was  destined  to  be 
the  father  of  scientific  archaeology,  in  the  person  of  Winckelmann, 

^ Hor.,  Ep.  II.  i.  156. 


3 


THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  GREEK  ART 

whose  studies  in  Rome,  the  results  of  which  he  embodied  in  his 
Histoy'u  ^^ncient  A?'t  (1764),  enabled  him  to  establish  certain 
general  principles,  still  accepted  in  the  main.  It  was  he  who  first 
pointed  out  the  contrast  between  the  freedom  and  diversity  of  Greek 
art,  and  the  limitations  and  conventionality  of  Egyptian ; and  his 
classification  of  the  former  in  four  periods — beginning,  progress,  state 
of  rest  or  perfection,  and  decadence — still  provides  the  framework  for 
modern  histories  of  classical  art. 

But  the  material  which  Winckelmann  had  to  work  upon  was 
after  all  but  fragmentary.  He  knew  nothing  of  the  Parthenon 
sculptures,  of  the  treasures  then  lying  beneath  the  soil  of  Olympia, 
of  the  Mausoleum  or  the  altar  at  Pergamon  ; still  less  of  the  marvel- 
lous results  awaiting  the  explorers  of  Mycenae,  Troy,  and  Crete.  To 
him,  therefore,  all  the  more  credit  is  due  that  on  such  a meagre 
foundation  he  should  have  raised  such  an  enduring  structure  of 
criticism ; and  it  behoves  his  successors  of  the  twentieth  century  that 
with  this  wealth  and  variety  of  material  before  their  eyes  they  occupy 
faithfully  the  Sparta  over  which  they  have  been  appointed. 

We  may  now  turn  to  consider  Greek  art  as  a whole,  that  is, 
Greek  art  in  its  most  typical  aspect,  and  ignoring  for  the  moment 
both  the  primitive  pre-Hellenic  ages  of  embryo  development,  and  the 
age  of  decay  and  transformation  under  Roman  dominion,  endeavour 
to  estimate  the  achievements  of  the  national  Hellenic  spirit,  accom- 
plished as  they  were  in  a comparatively  short  time  and  within  narrow 
limits,  and  their  effect  upon  humanity. 

Greek  art  is  characterised  by  two  main  features  : its  reality  and 
its  spontaneity.  Not  only  was  it  bound  up  with  every  detail  of  their 
daily  life,  but  its  authors  were  the  first  to  develop,  in  modern  phrase- 
ology, ‘ Art  for  Art’s  sake.’  Of  the  Greek,  more  than  of  any  other 
people,  except  perhaps  the  Japanese,  it  may  be  said  ‘ nihil  quod  tetigit 
non  07'navit,'  and  although  the  same  artistic  spirit  breathed  in  the 
fifteenth-century  Florentines,  and  indeed  throughout  Western  Europe 
in  the  later  IMiddle  Ages,  the  latter  was  much  more  the  result  of 
long  training  and  the  heritage  of  bygone  races — even,  it  may  be  said, 
of  the  legacy  left  by  the  Greeks  themselves  to  posterity. 

There  is  visible,  in  all  the  products  of  Greek  art,  the  same  in- 
variable instinct  for  the  beautiful  which  even  the  old  traveller 
Pausanias  recognised  in  the  second  century  of  our  era,  when  the 
sight  of  the  rude  images  worshipped  in  the  temples  and  traditionally 
4 


THE  GENIUS  OF  THE  GREEKS 


attributed  to  the  legendary  Daidalos  drew  from  him  the  shrewd 
observation  that  ‘ the  works  of  Daidalos  may  indeed  be  uncouth  to 
the  eye,  but  yet  there  is  some  trace  of  divine  inspiration  in  them.’^ 
Herein  lies  the  secret  of  Greek  art,  in  the  ‘ something  divine  ’ which 
underlies  even  its  early  helplessness.  And  this  artistic  instinct  we 
shall  see,  first  in  the  archaic  period,  struggling  against  incapacity  and 
imperfect  technique ; then  in  the  finest  period  combining  ideal  con- 
ceptions with  a perfected  technique ; and  lastly,  in  the  period  of  the 
decadence  of  art,  allowing  the  conceptions  to  be  overpowered  by  the 
too  complete  mastery  of  technical  skill. 

All  other  ancient  art  was  either  purely  decorative  or  mainly 
symbolical,  that  is,  either  the  artistic  representation  was  subordinated 
to  some  other  purpose  in  the  work  decorated,  as  in  the  art  of  Egypt 
and  Assyria,  or  else  it  was  made  subservient  to  the  manifestation 
of  some  thought  or  fact,  as  in  the  case  of  the  picture-writing  practised 
by  the  early  inhabitants  of  Crete,  as  by  savages  in  more  recent  times. 
But  the  Greeks  were  the  first  to  make  statues  and  pictures  represent- 
ing ideal  subjects,  in  which  the  sole  aim  was  artistic  form  and  the 
impression  it  was  destined  to  make  on  the  spectator. 

At  the  same  time  we  see  in  the  Greeks  a remarkable  capacity 
for  seizing  what  was  good  in  the  art  of  other  nations.  Although 
the  spirit  of  their  productions  was  always  inherently  their  own,  they 
borrowed  largely,  both  from  Egypt  and  Assyria,  not  only  technical 
processes,  but  decorative  patterns,  animal  types,  and  such  like  motives. 
An  apt  illustration  of  this  principle,  which  has  been  given  by  more 
than  one  writer,  is,  that  just  as  the  Greek  language  was  their  own, 
but  the  alphabet  was  Oriental  in  origin,  so  their  art  was  original,  but 
the  alphabet  in  which  it  was  written  was  largely  derived  from  external 
sources.  It  would  even  be  possible  to  pursue  the  comparison  further, 
and  point  out  that  the  island  of  Cyprus,  which  used  a quite  in- 
dependent and  peculiar  alphabet,  also  preserves  a marked  degree  of 
independence  in  its  art,  which  does  not  follow  the  same  lines  of 
development  as  the  rest  of  Greece,  although  the  affinities  of  the  people 
were  mainly  Hellenic.  But  even  where,  as  sometimes  in  the  archaic 
period.  Oriental  influences  were  overwhelmingly  strong,  the  Hellenic 
strain  never  fails  to  be  apparent. 

Again,  the  genius  of  the  Greeks  was  essentially  plastic ; in  other 
words,  they  had  a much  stronger  eye  for  form  than  for  colour.  Hence 
their  marked  preference  for  sculpture  over  painting,  and  the  wonderful 


^ ii.  4,  5. 


5 


THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  GREEK  ART 


instinct  for  beautiful  forms  which  is  visible  even  in  the  shapes  of 
their  pottery,  the  humble  vessels  in  daily  use,  as  well  as  the  more 
ornate  examples.  In  comparison  with  painting,  sculpture  is  largely 
conditioned  by  two  circumstances,  material  and  choice  of  subjects, 
and  may  be  described  as  an  objective  and  concrete  art,  whereas  paint- 
ing is  more  abstract  and  subjective.  This  was  altogether  in  accordance 
with  the  tendency  of  the  Greek  intellect,  at  all  events  for  the  greater 
part  of  their  history,  and  it  may  be  observed  that  it  is  precisely  when, 
under  the  influence  of  philosophy,  it  tends  in  the  direction  of  reflective- 
ness and  abstract  conceptions  that  painting  begins  to  force  its  way 
to  the  front. 

Compared  with  their  eye  for  form  the  Greeks  had  little  for  colour, 
at  least  according  to  modern  ideas,  and  their  system  of  colouring  their 
temples  and  statues  appears  somewhat  crude  to  our  eyes  ; but  it  was  to 
some  extent  demanded  by  atmospheric  conditions,  just  as  the 
brilliantly-variegated  marbles  of  an  Italian  cathedral  produce  an  effect 
under  the  pellucid  Southern  sky  which  would  be  altogether  lost  in  our 
Northern  climes.  To  the  same  cause  were  due  the  subtle  optical 
corrections  in  their  architecture  to  which  we  shall  have  occasion  to 
allude. 

The  development  of  Greek  art  was  also  favoured  by  the  nature  of 
Greek  religion,  which  was  essentially  naturalistic  and  anthropomorphic. 
Hence  it  readily  gave  an  impulse  to  art,  and  at  the  same  time  was  an 
additional  factor  in  turning  that  art  in  the  direction  of  sculpture, 
which  much  more  readily  than  painting  associated  itself  with  religion. 
And  it  is  interesting  to  observe  how  the  development  of  art,  especially 
sculpture,  was  conditioned  by  the  development  of  religion,  from  the 
days  of  primitive,  even  savage,  cults  and  rude  formless  images  almost 
of  a fetichistic  character,  down  to  those  of  philosophical  rationalism  and 
emancipated  art-conceptions.  In  many  cases  where  old  types  are 
preserved,  it  is  with  a conscious  intention,  chiefly  fostered  by  hieratic 
influence,  to  keep  up  the  ancient  cult  at  whatever  cost,  just  as  the 
primitive  wooden  cult-images  were  often  preserved  in  the  temples. 
This  is  best  illustrated  in  the  smaller  products  of  art  such  as  the 
votive  terra-cotta  figures,  or  the  Panathenaic  prize-vases,  whereon  even 
in  the  fourth  century  the  image  of  the  patron-goddess  is  depicted  in 
the  old  style  and  method  of  the  sixth.^ 

But,  generally  speaking,  there  is  a tendency  as  art  progresses  to 
replace  the  older  deities  by  the  younger.  Dionysos  and  Hermes  are 

^ See  Plate  lxxiii.  and  p.  173. 


c 


GREEK  ART  AND  RELIGION 


in  the  sixth  century  bearded  men  of  middle  age  ; in  the  fourth  century 
Hermes  becomes  the  type  of  youthful  perfection  of  form,  and  Dionysos 
acquires  an  effeminate  character.  Again,  while  in  the  fifth  century 
representations  of  the  great  gods,  Zeus,  Hera,  and  Athena,  pre- 
dominate, in  the  fourth  it  is  the  more  human  conceptions  such  as 
Apollo,  Aphrodite,  and  Eros.  Thus  while  Quintilian  could  say  of 
Pheidias  that  by  his  great  conception  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  he  had 
‘added  something  to  the  received  religion,’^  a hundred  years  later 
passion,  pathos,  and  sentimentality  reign  supreme,  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  loftier  emotions. 

The  same  principle  is  at  work  both  in  the  drama  and  in  Greek 
athletics.  Contrast  the  Aeschylean  conceptions  of  the  Titanic  deities 
and  the  grim  relentlessness  of  Destiny  with  the  rationalising  attitude 
of  Euripides  ; the  lofty  and  solemn  tone  of  the  Oresteian  trilogy  with 
the  almost  homely  treatment  of  the  same  subject  by  the  later 
dramatist.  And  as  with  the  drama,  so  too  with  athleticism,  which  was 
at  first  entirely  religious  in  its  associations  ; for  just  as  the  drama 
influenced  painting  in  the  fourth  century,  so  too  athleticism  had  its 
effect  on  sculpture,  gradually  divorcing  art  from  religion  as  the  idea  of 
mere  physical  beauty  began  to  prevail  over  the  sacred  character  of  the 
national  games.  \Ve  read  indeed  that  statues  of  athletes  were  set  up 
as  early  as  the  sixth  century  b.c.,  but  they  were  votive  statues,  a 
solemn  dedication  of  the  athlete’s  personality  to  his  patron  deity,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  under  the  academic 
influence  of  Polycleitos,  that  such  statues  were  made  for  a purely 
aesthetic  end.  The  history  of  Greek  art  is  then  largely  a history  of  the 
religious  and  intellectual  development  of  the  Greek  race. 

We  have  seen  that  Greek  art  was  long  ago  regarded  by  Winckel- 
mann  as  falling  into  four  main  divisions,  and  that  this  classification  has 
in  the  main  prevailed  down  to  the  present  time.  The  dates,  however, 
which  Winckelmann  with  his  limited  knowledge  would  have  fixed  for 
the  various  stages  have  necessarily  been  subjected  to  some  alteration 
since  his  day.  Before  we  close  this  chapter  it  may  be  found  convenient 
to  supplement  our  survey  of  Greek  Art  as  a whole  with  a brief  outline 
of  the  characteristics  of  these  separate  stages,  which  will  also  serve  as 
an  introduction  to  the  method  of  treatment  adopted  in  the  succeeding 
chapters  for  the  various  branches  of  the  subject. 


(1)  2500-1000  B.c. 


The  first  period  may  be  styled  that  of  the 


* Inst.  Orat.,  xii.  10,  0. 


THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  GREEK  ART 


Origins  of  Greek  Art,  before  the  dawn  of  literary  history.  It  is  a 
period  of  which  Winckelmann  knew  nothing,  of  which  the  nineteenth- 
century  writers  knew  little  more  down  to  the  eighth  decade  of  that 
century,  but  of  which  we  of  the  twentieth  are  learning  more  and  more 
almost  every  day.  In  view  of  the  nature  of  the  discoveries  of  recent 
years  we  cannot  indeed  regard  this  period — taken  by  itself — as  one  of 
primitive  art,  for  in  many  respects  the  artist  of  Knossos  or  Mycenae  was 
as  skilful  and  as  creative  as  his  successor  of  fifth-century  Athens.  But 
in  relation  to  the  art  of  historic  Greece  it  was  actually  a period  of 
beginnings,  of  tentative  experiments,  and  of  achievements  which  paved 
the  way  for  the  whole  course  of  later  art.  In  a chronological  sense  it  is 
coincident  with  the  Bronze  Age  in  this  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  its 
earliest  products  being  traced  as  far  back  as  about  2500  b.c.,  and  its 
latest  efforts,  before  it  was  swept  away  by  the  inroads  of  northern 
barbarians,  down  to  about  1000  b.c.  After  that  date  this  civilisation 
lingered  on  in  some  districts  until  it  was  merged  in  the  new  Hellenic 
culture,  but  everywhere  the  latter  owed  to  it  a debt  of  which  it  was 
probably  unaware,  and  which  scholars  are  only  now  beginning  to 
realise.  The  general  characteristics  of  this  period  in  all  its  aspects  are 
summarised  in  the  succeeding  chapter. 

(2)  1000 — 460  B.C.  The  Archaic  Period  of  preparation  and 
upward  progress  begins  actually  in  the  mythical  ages,  being  conven- 
tionally dated  from  the  time  of  the  Dorian  invasion  (see  p.  14)  and 
heralded  by  the  civilisation  of  the  Homeric  poems.  Taken  only  in 
relation  to  the  succeeding  period,  it  is  actually,  as  it  was  regarded 
formerly,  the  epoch  of  the  beginning  of  Greek  art.  It  extends  down 
to  the  time  immediately  preceding  the  Age  of  Pericles  and  the 
Athenian  supremacy,  and  admits  of  subdivision  into  two  stages  which 
overlap  in  point  of  chronology  if  not  artistic  development.  The 
earlier  of  these  may  be  styled  the  period  of  Traditional  Art  as 
represented  by  the  poems  of  Homer  and  by  various  monuments  or 
craftsmen  of  which  we  have  only  literary  records  or  traditions.  Of 
existing  remains  of  this  time  there  is  but  little  except  survivals  or 
imitations  of  the  art  of  the  first  period,  and  the  literary  traditions  are 
all  we  have  to  fill  the  gap.  This  period  extends  down  to  the  end  of 
the  seventh  century  b.c.  The  later  stage,  or  that  of  Earliest 
IMonumental  Art,  begins  with  the  rise  of  Sculpture  and  the  rapid 
advance  of  the  decorative  arts  towards  the  end  of  the  seventh  century, 
and  ends  with  the  Persian  Wars.  It  is  a remarkable  fact  that  two 
8 


CHRONOLOGICAL  DIVISIONS 


branches  of  art  reach  the  height  of  their  perfection  within  the 
limits  of  this  period  : Architecture  and  Vase-painting. 

The  period  of  the  Persian  Wars  from  about  500-460  b.c.  may  be 
regarded  as  a transitional  stage,  during  which  the  upward  develop- 
ment was  extraordinarily  rapid. 

(3.)  460-320  B.c.  The  Highest  or  Best  Period,  that  of  perfec- 
tion, extends  from  the  rise  of  Athenian  supremacy  down  to  the  death 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  It  is  a peculiarity  of  the  period  that  it  is 
one  neither  of  development  nor  of  retrogression,  but  one  of  rest — as 
Winckelmann  pointed  out — during  which  art  remains  practically  at  the 
same  height,  though  not  necessarily  uniform  in  its  aims  or  inspirations, 
for  about  a hundred  and  fifty  years.  It  is  marked  first  by  the  pro- 
ducts of  Pheidias  and  his  school,  and  next  by  the  work  of  Polykleitos, 
Praxiteles,  Skopas,  and  Lysippos,  in  all  of  whom  we  see  the  per- 
fection of  the  art  of  Sculpture,  though  as  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  show  in  later  chapters  their  characteristics  are  widely  different. 
The  art  of  Painting,  apart  from  vases,  lags  behind,  and  does  not 
reach  perfection  until  the  appearance  of  Apelles  in  the  age  of 
Alexander,  whereas  coins,  gem-engraving,  and  work  in  metal  and 
terra-cotta  all  reach  their  highest  point  by  at  least  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century. 

(4.)  320-146  B.c.  A period  of  transition  of  some  twenty  or  thirty 
years  may  be  observed  leading  up  to  the  Period  of  Decline  or 
Decadence,  lasting  down  to  146  b.c.,  and  chiefly  illustrated  by  the 
schools  of  painting  and  sculpture  which  flourished  in  Asia  Minor. 
Historically  it  is  coincident  with  the  Hellenistic  period,  the  date  of  its 
termination  being  that  of  the  taking  of  Corinth  and  subjugation  of 
Greece  by  the  Romans.  From  this  time  onward  art,  which  had,  ever 
since  the  days  of  Alexander,  tended  to  decentralisation  and  cosmopoli- 
tanism, is  usually  regarded  as  ‘Graeco-Roman.’  It  is  a convenient  if 
somewhat  artificial  limit,  but  affords  a suitable  point  for  determining 
the  extent  of  the  present  work.  The  annexed  chronological  scheme 
of  Greek  art  will,  it  is  hoped,  give  an  adequate  survey  in  a brief 
space  of  the  main  characteristics  and  achievements  of  these  four 
periods  : — 


9 


the  characteristics  of  GREEK  ART 


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10 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 

Early  Greek  Art  and  Recent  Discoveries — Bronze  Age  Civilisation — The 
Mycenaean  People — Early  Remains  of  Trov  and  the  Greek  Islands — Crete  and 
Minos — Mycenae  and  its  Remains — Metal-work  and  Painting — Literary  Tradi- 
tions— Art  in  Homer — The  Chest  of  Kypselos — Oriental  Influence  (Egypt, 
Assyria,  Phoenicia). 

The  Greeks  themselves  seem  to  have  held  exceedingly  vague 
and  uncritical  notions  about  the  origin  of  their  art,  as  of  their 
early  history  in  general,  and  the  statements  of  ancient  writers, 
such  as  Herodotus  and  Thucydides,  still  more  the  later  authors,  like 
Pliny,  must  be  used  with  the  greatest  caution.  Until  about  thirty 
years  ago,  indeed,  modern  scholars  were  almost  equally  in  the  dark,  and 
although  the  value  of  the  study  of  archaeology  for  the  interpretation 
of  history  had  begun  to  receive  adequate  recognition,  poverty  of 
material  afforded  little  for  the  student  to  work  upon  beyond  the 
literary  traditions  and  the  evidence  of  Homer  and  other  writers.  Now, 
however,  all  is  different,  and  such  a flood  of  light  has  been  thrown 
upon  the  remains  of  pre-historic  Greece  by  the  marvellous  discoveries 
of  the  last  thirty  years  that  we  are  in  a fair  way  not  only  to  co-ordinate 
and  estimate  properly  all  the  literary  evidence,  but  even  to  reconstruct 
the  social  and  political  history  of  the  lands  bordering  on  the  Aegean 
in  the  ‘ Dark  Ages  ’ previous  to  the  dawn  of  history. 

The  chief  merit  of  this  great  transformation  is  due  to  Heinrich 
Schliemann  and  his  laudable  ambitions,  which,  triumphing  over 
innumerable  obstacles,  enabled  him  to  lay  bare  some  of  the  most 
famous  ancient  sites,  to  recover  treasures  sufficient  to  stock  more 
than  one  museum,  and  to  supply  materials  for  study  which  even 
now  are  hardly  exhausted.  That  Schliemann  was  something  of  a 
visionary,  and  claimed  for  his  discoveries  ratlier  more  than  was 
justifiable,  does  not  indeed  detract  from  their  value.  ^Ve  may  not 
be  able  to  see  in  the  tombs  of  Mycenae,  as  he  did,  the  burial-place 

11 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 


of  Agamemnon  and  his  compeers,  or  to  accept  his  theories  as  to  the 
city  of  Troy  and  the  palace  of  Priam  ; but  he  has  largely  enabled  us 
to  reconstruct  the  civilisation  of  which  Homer  has  given  us  but  a 
vague  and  shadowy  description,  and  in  some  measure  to  sift  the 
historical  from  the  legendary  and  fact  from  tradition. 

Put  Schliemann  does  not  stand  alone  as  an  explorer  of  pre-historic 
Greece  and  reconstructor  of  its  history.  Hesearches  have  been  made 
by  archaeological  bodies  and  private  individuals  in  Attica,  in  the 
Peloponnesos,  in  Poeotia,  in  the  islands  of  the  Aegean,  in  Egypt, 
Crete,  Rhodes,  and  Cyprus,  in  fact,  in  nearly  all  the  countries  of  the 
Eastern  Mediterranean,  which  have  yielded  similar,  if  in  most  cases 
less  remarkable,  results,  and  each  and  all  have  assisted  in  building  up 
the  edifice  of  accumulated  knowledge  where  thirty  years  ago  was  open 
ground.  If  Schliemann  laid  the  foundation-stone,  the  coping-stone 
will  perhaps  be  the  work  of  his  successors,  the  recent  explorers  of 
Crete.  This  island,  since  facilities  have  been  afforded  for  systematic 
investigation,  has  yielded  results  even  more  remarkable  from  an 
archaeological  point  of  view  than  those  of  Mycenae.  A new  world  of 
artistic  creation  has  been  opened  out,  and  a state  of  civilisation  revealed 
which  seems  almost  incredible  at  that  remote  date  (2000-1500  b.c.); 
and  further,  Crete  has  been  established  as  the  primary  centre  whence 
this  culture  was  diffused  throughout  the  Eastern  Mediterranean. 

To  put  it  briefly,  during  the  period  usually  spoken  of  as  the  second 
millennium  b.c. — more  accurately  from  2500  to  900  or  800  B.c. — there 
exist  all  over  the  IMediterranean,  from  Cyprus  and  Egypt  to  Sicily, 
and  even  further,  extensive  traces  of  a civilisation  coincident  with  the 
Pronze  Age  in  most  of  those  countries.  This  civilisation  shows  a 
course  of  development  in  its  art  from  the  pure  copper  implements 
and  rude  pottery  which  are  found  in  tombs  even  along  with  Neolithic 
stone  implements,  up  to  a stage  of  really  advanced  art  and  extended 
commerce.  At  a certain  point,  however,  it  suddenly  disappears,  or  at 
least  only  lingers  on  in  isolated  spots,  and  is  succeeded  by  a new  but 
much  more  rudimentary  civilisation  corresponding  with  the  appearance 
of  the  Iron  Age — at  the  point,  that  is  to  say,  when  iron  begins  to  be 
found  in  the  tombs.  It  is  this  latter  date  which  marks  the  beginning 
of  Greek  art  proper,  in  so  far  as  a connected  and  continuous  develop- 
ment can  be  traced  from  this  time  onwards  up  to  the  Highest  Period 
of  Art. 

Put  in  the  light  of  the  new  discoveries  we  can  no  longer  say  that 
Greek  art  or  Greek  civilisation  begins  at  this  particular  point.  Even 
12 


•.MIXOAX 


iOl.l)  ORNAM  KX'l'S  FROM  .M\CFA\\F 

(AMIKNS  a: I' skim) 


MYCENAEAN  CIVILISATION 


Horace  was  ready  to  admit  that  ‘there  were  brave  men  before 
Agamemnon,’  and  we  know  now  that  Homer  does  not  represent 
the  earliest  phases  of  life  in  Greek  lands.  It  is  not  at  present  a 
settled  question  how  far  this  early  civilisation  is  entitled  to  be  called 
Greek,  and  many  theories  of  its  origin  have  been  promulgated  by 
scholars.  From  the  fact  that  Mycenae  was  shown  by  Schliemann 
to  have  been  one  of  its  chief  centres,  and  had  yielded  more  extensive 
results  than  any  other  region,  the  name  of  ‘ Mycenaean  ’ was  given  to 
this  civilisation  and  its  art,  and  though  no  more  than  a conventional 
expression,  has  become  current  coin  in  the  language  both  of  scholars 
and  the  wider  circle  of  students  in  general.  The  only  other  name 
that  has  found  any  acceptance  is  that  of  ‘ Aegean,’  which  is  at  least 
geographically  more  correct,  inasmuch  as  the  chief  centres  lie  round 
the  shores  of  that  sea,  and  indicate  that  it  was  traversed  in  all  directions 
by  the  agents  of  ‘ iMycenaean  ’ commerce.  The  Cretan  supremacy  is 
now  generally  spoken  of  as  ‘ Minoan.’ 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  neither  term  attempts  to  define 
either  the  period,  the  centre  of  industry,  or  the  racial  affinities  of  this 
people ; but  whether  we  regard  them  as  Greeks  or  not,  at  all  events  they 
occupied  the  same  geographical  area  which  subsequently  constituted 
Greece,  and  certainly  represent  the  inhabitants  of  that  region  in  the 
Bronze  Age.  There  is  even  good  reason  for  doubting  whether  they 
were  originally  an  Aryan  race  at  all.  Meanwhile  attempts  have  been 
made  to  show  their  identity  with  the  Pelasgians,^  the  race  which, 
according  to  Greek  tradition,  formed  the  original  inhabitants  of  many 
parts  of  Hellas,  such  as  Attica,  Arcadia,  and  Thessaly,  and  appear  to 
have  formed  a stock  neither  Aryan  nor  Semite.  Such,  at  all  events, 
seems  to  have  been  the  ethnographical  character  of  the  pre-Mycenaean 
peoples  in  Greece,  and  the  Pelasgian  theory  no  doubt  contains  a 
measure  of  truth.  But  the  generally  accepted  view  at  the  present 
time  is  that  the  people  were  the  Achaeans,  the  name  given  by  Homer 
to  the  Greeks  who  fought  against  Troy,  and  that  Mycenae  therefore 
represents  the  capital  and  abode  of  the  wealthy  Achaean  princes 
(typified  by  Agamemnon).^  Tlie  political  supremacy  of  Crete  belongs, 
as  we  shall  see,  to  an  earlier  stage. 

The  question  of  the  chronology  of  this  civilisation  has  turned  mainly 
on  evidence  derived  from  Egypt.  Not  only  are  Egyptian  objects, 

^ See  Ridgeway’s  Early  Age  of  Greece  (vol.  i.  only  publislied). 

^ Homer  speaks  of  ^ Mycenae  abounding  in  gold  ’ ; and  he  calls  the  Greeks  Argives,  as  if  Argos 
was  the  most  important  part  of  the  country. 


13 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 


such  as  scarabs,  frequently  found  in  Mycenaean  tombs,  but  there  is 
abundant  evidence  from  Egypt  itself,  especially  in  the  period  covered 
by  the  Eighteenth  to  Twenty-first  Dynasties  (lGOO-1000  b.c.),  of  com- 
mercial relations  between  the  two  peoples.  Scarabs  of  Amenhetep  iii. 
and  Queen  Thii,  belonging  to  the  period  about  1450  b.c.,  have  been 
found  in  tombs  at  lalysos  in  Rhodes  and  at  Mycenae.^  The 
evidence  from  Egypt  is  even  stronger.  Representations  of  IMycenaean 
metal-work  and  costumes  were  found  in  the  tomb  of  Rekhmara 
(1550  B.c.)  and  pictures  of  Mycenaean  vases  in  that  of  Ramses  iii. 
(1150-1100  B.C.).  Further,  not  only  has  pottery  of  the  early  Cretan 
types  been  found  in  tombs  of  the  Fayum,  reaching  as  far  back  as 
the  Twelfth  Dynasty  (2500-2300  b.c.),  but  Mycenaean  vases  of  the 
ordinary  type  have  been  found  in  tombs  and  deposits  ranging  from 
about  1400  B.c.  at  Tell-el-Amarna  to  1000  b.c.  in  the  tomb  of 
Pinetchem  t.’s  grandson.  The  result  of  this  evidence  has  been  to 
establish  a working  hypothesis  that  the  Cretan  supremacy  extended 
from  about  2500  b.c.  to  1500  B.c.,  and  was  then  followed  by  that  of 
Mycenae  for  about  five  hundred  years.^ 

The  remarkable  upheaval  which  tended  to  submerge  this  IMycenaean 
or  Achaean  power,  forcing  on  Greece  the  necessity  of  learning  anew 
the  alphabet  of  her  art,  is  generally  held  to  be  coincident  with  the 
Dorian  invasion.  This  event,  known  to  the  Greeks  as  the  Return  of 
the  Herakleidae  (or  descendants  of  Herakles),  is  supposed  to  have 
taken  place  about  1100  b.c.  These  Dorians  originally  came  from  the 
plains  of  Central  Europe,  whence  they  crossed  the  Balkans  and  settled 
first  in  the  mountain  fastnesses  of  Central  Greece.  Becoming  more 
powerful,  they  suddenly  made  a southward  move,  and  possessed  them- 
selves of  the  Peloponnese,  driving  out  the  Achaeans,  who  sought 
refuge  on  the  coast  of  Asia  JMinor  and  in  Cyprus.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  made  little  impression  on  the  Pelasgian  inhabitants  of 
Boeotia,  Attica,  and  Arcadia.  A rude  uncultured  race,  as  the  history 
of  their  Spartan  descendants  shows,  they  brought  with  them  a simple 
and  elementary  form  of  art,  which  made  its  influence  felt  in  the 
pottery  of  several  succeeding  centuries.  The  dispersion  of  the 
JMycenaean  culture  in  Greece  seems  to  have  been  complete,  and 
only  scattered  traces  remained  to  influence  here  and  there  the  art  of 
the  new  race.  But  in  the  contemporaneous  art  of  Asia  IMinor  and 

1 Caution  must  always  be  exercised  in  basing  tlieories  on  such  evidence,  as  scarabs  were 
frequently  imitated  in  later  times. 

2 See  for  a summary  of  the  evidence,  H.  R.  Hall,  The  Oldest  Civilization  of  Greece,  p.  76. 

14 


EARLIEST  REMAINS  IN  GREECE 


Cyprus  the  Mycenaean  strain  is  much  stronger,  and  later  schools 
of  artists  evidently  owed  much  to  its  influence.  In  Cyprus,  indeed, 
it  seems  to  have  lingered  on  later  than  elsewhere.  The  stories  of 
the  Trojan  War  have  been  thought  to  owe  their  origin  to  the  arrival 
of  the  Achaean  hosts  on  the  shores  of  North-western  Asia  Minor,  and 
those  of  the  subsequent  adventures  of  the  returning  heroes  have  also 
been  connected  with  the  appearance  of  Mycenaean  settlements  in 
Cyprus  and  other  comparatively  remote  places. 

It  now  remains  to  summarise  briefly  the  characteristics  of  this 
IMycenaean  civilisation. 

Undoubtedly  the  earliest  remains  are  those  of  Troy,  the  islands  of 
the  Cyclades  in  the  Aegean,  Crete,  and  Cyprus.  Dr.  Schliemann,  who 
investigated  Troy  shortly  before  his  death,  and  his  successor.  Dr.  Dorp- 
feld,  discovered  traces  of  no  less  than  nine  different  settlements  in 
successive  layers,  ranging  from  about  2500  b.c.  to  Homan  times.  The 
first  and  lowest  contained  rude  Neolithic  remains,  the  second,  which 
Schliemann  erroneously  supposed  to  be  the  Homeric  Troy,  ^ remains 
of  a more  advanced  but  still  primitive  character,  including  simple 
bronze  implements  and  plain  pottery.  The  forms  of  the  latter  are 
often  remarkable,  and  the  prevailing  idea  of  the  artist  in  clay  at  this 
time  seems  to  have  been  to  combine  as  far  as  possible  the  fictile  and 
plastic  arts,  by  giving  to  the  vase  the  semblance  of  a human  form. 
This  was  a principle  never  lost  sight  of  in  minor  Greek  art,  and  in 
some  measure  it  is  maintained  even  to  the  present  day,  when  we 
speak  of  the  ‘ neck,’  ‘ shoulder,’  ‘ body,’  or  ‘ foot  ’ of  a vessel.  But  of 
painted  decoration  or  of  sculptured  images  there  is  as  yet  no  sign. 

On  the  other  hand  in  the  Cycladic  islands  we  find  not  only  painted 
vases  of  a remarkably  advanced  type,  but  also  rude  sculptured  images 
of  marble,  representing  female  divinities.  The  latter  have  been  chiefly 
found  in  the  island  of  Amorgos.  The  former  were  found  in  Santorin 
(Thera)  under  somewhat  remarkable  circumstances,  being  apparently 
the  remains  of  a very  ancient  civilisation  overwhelmed  by  a volcanic 
eruption  which  is  dated  by  geologists  about  2000  b.c.  These  early 
examples  of  painted  vases  are  ornamented  with  vegetable  patterns  of 
a remarkably  naturalistic  type,  and  sometimes  even  with  figures  of 
animals.  The  latter  are,  in  accordance  with  a universal  law  in  early 
Greek  art,  inferior  in  style  to  the  floral  decoration. 

The  earliest  remains  of  the  island  of  Cyprus  present  a strong 

* Dr.  Dorpfeld  subsequently  proved  this  to  be  the  sixth. 


15 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 


parallelism  with  those  of  Troy,  and  are  probably  contemporary  with 
them,  \x.  not  later  than  2000  b.c.  The  tombs  contain  weapons  of 
pure  copper,  which  point  to  a time  before  the  admixture  of  tin 
necessary  to  produce  bronze  had  been  discovered.  Cyprus  was  always 
famous  in  antiquity  for  its  copper  mines,  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
working  of  that  metal  (and  afterwards  of  bronze)  was  first  established 
in  that  island,  and  spread  thence  over  the  Mediterranean.  The  pottery 
resembles  that  of  Troy  both  in  forms  and  appearance,  the  decoration 
being  limited  to  geometrical  patterns  of  lines  engraved  with  a knife 
while  the  clay  was  soft.  For  some  centuries  Cyprus  preserved  a high 
level  of  civilisation  compared  with  other  countries,  but  it  subsequently 
showed  a tendency  to  lag  behind,  remaining  content  to  imitate  and 
combine  the  features  of  Greek  and  Oriental  art. 

Lastly,  in  Crete  we  find  remains  of  a very  early  civilisation,  the 
pottery  resembling  in  its  decoration  that  of  Thera,  but  more  advanced. 
The  decoration  consists  of  floral  designs  in  polychrome  colouring  on 
a dark  ground  or  in  dark  colour  on  a light  ground,  or  patterns  in  relief. 
The  seals  and  engraved  stones,  of  which  such  numbers  have  been 
recently  discovered  by  Dr.  Arthur  Evans,  not  only  bear  signs  of  a 
very  high  antiquity,  but  are  specially  interesting  from  the  characters 
engraved  upon  them,  indicative  of  a far  earlier  system  of  writing  than 
had  hitherto  been  supposed  to  exist  in  Greek  lands.  They  are  partly 
linear  signs,  partly  pictographs  or  hieroglyphics,  but  their  meaning  as 
yet  awaits  interpretation.  They  would  seem  to  be  the  product  of 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  island,  whom  Homer  calls  Eteocretes 
or  ‘ genuine  Cretans,’  and  the  signs  show  affinities  with  those  used  by 
the  Hittites  of  Asia  Minor  and  with  the  later  Cypriote  syllabic 
alphabet. 

Since  the  island  has  been  laid  open  to  the  excavator  by  recent 
political  changes  a great  work  has  been  done  by  Dr.  Arthur  Evans 
and  other  explorers  in  laying  bare  the  ancient  sites.  At  Knossos,  the 
old  capital.  Dr.  Evans  has  unearthed  a vast  palace  of  several  stories, 
which  represents  the  abode  of  the  early  ‘ JNIycenaean  ’ rulers  of  the 
island,  about  the  sixteenth  century  b.c.  According  to  Greek  legend, 
as  embodied  in  the  histories  of  Herodotus  and  Thucydides,  ^ the 
great  ruler  of  Crete — who  extended  his  dominion  over  the  neighbour- 
ing islands  and  even  the  mainland  of  Asia  Minor — was  Minos,  the 
father  of  the  monstrous  Minotaur,  for  whom  he  built  the  famous 
labyrinth.  Whether  or  no  INIinos  ever  existed,  we  may  yet  see  in 

1 Hdt.,  i.  173,  iii.  122  ; Time  , i.  4,  8. 


16 


I'LA'JA  III 


C-  R \ K K KSC'( )- 1 'A  I X I'  1 X ( JS 

I- ROM  IHK  I'AI.ACK  OF  MINOS  A l k'NOSSOs) 


PLAIE  IV 


J \Vk\CK  \ ASKS  and  I'AR'I'  ok  1VC)R\-  ('ASRF/I', 

(liKiTisn  iuuskum) 


FROM  ENKOMl,  CYPRUS 


EEMAINS  AT  MYCENAE 


this  palace  the  abode  of  Cretan  sovereignty  during  this  period  of 
extended  dominion.  The  island  is  rich  in  remains  of  Mycenaean  or 
‘ Minoan  ’ art,  such  as  engraved  gems,  painted  vases,  and  the  extra- 
ordinarily realistic  fresco-paintings  which  adorned  the  walls  of  the 
Knossian  palace.^  It  would  be  impossible,  however,  to  give  a detailed 
description  of  the  marvels  which  have  only  recently  been  made  known 
to  an  astonished  world. ^ 

But  Crete  was  ere  long  destined  to  be  overshadowed  by  a rising 
power  of  great  commercial  importance  and  almost  equal  artistic  genius, 
which  had  its  centre  at  JNIycenae  and  in  the  neighbouring  palace  of 
Tiryns.  The  excavation  of  the  latter  by  Dr.  Schliemann  has  thrown 
a vivid  light  on  the  Homeric  descriptions  of  chieftains’  houses,  and 
we  may  see  the  whole  plan  of  the  palace  laid  bare,  with  every  room 
and  court  distinct,  and  the  wonderful  subterranean  galleries  of 
‘ Cyclopean  ’ masonry  (see  p.  29).^  But  at  JNIycenae  the  remains,  even 
at  the  present  day,  are  far  more  remarkable. 

To  view  the  earliest,  the  traveller  must  ascend  the  hill  on  which 
the  fortress  was  built,  and  pass  through  the  famous  Lion  Gate,  which 
has  stood  from  time  immemorial  almost  intact,  even  surviving  the 
general  destruction  in  the  fifth  century  b.c.  Within  the  gate  is  the 
Agora,  or  place  of  the  Council,  with  its  circular  stone  benches  on 
which  the  Achaean  chiefs  sat  to  deliberate,  just  as  Homer  describes 
them.  This  circle  encloses  the  six  shaft-graves  from  which  Schliemann 
and  his  successors  obtained  a magnificent  array  of  gold  ornaments  now 
displayed  in  the  museum  at  Athens,  together  with  quantities  of 
painted  pottery  and  other  objects.  The  ornaments  consist  mainly  of 
gold  plates  with  repousse  designs  of  butterflies,  spirals,  and  other 
patterns,  and  masks  of  thin  gold-leaf  which  were  placed  over  the  faces 
of  the  corpses.^  Whoever  may  have  been  the  occupants  of  these 
tombs,  their  belongings  certainly  show  that  the  Homeric  epithet  for 
JNIycenae,  ‘abounding  in  gold,’  was  fully  justified. 

Higher  up  lay  the  palace  of  the  Mycenaean  rulers,  the  foundations 
of  which  have  been  laid  bare,  and  lower  down  the  hill-side  stand  the 
famous  beehive  tombs,  known  from  time  immemorial  as  the  Treasure- 
house  or  Tomb  of  Atreus  and  the  Tomb  of  Clytemnestra.  The 
former,  which  may  be  taken  as  typical,  consists  of  three  parts,  the 

^ Two  examples  of  frescoes  are  given  on  Plate  iii.,  and  specimens  of  the  pottery  on  Plate  i. 

^ For  brief  summaries  of  the  results,  see  Quarterly  Review,  October  11)04,  p.  874  ff.,  and  Reinach’s 
Art  thy'ough  the  Ayes,  p.  28  ; for  fuller  details.  Annual  of  British  School  at  Athens,  vols.  vi.-x. 
(1899-1904). 

^ See  Plate  ix.  A plan  of  the  building  is  given  on  p.  31,  Fig.  1. 


G.  A.— 2 


Plate  II. 

17 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 

outer  vestibule  or  dromos^  the  circular  ‘ treasury  ’ with  its  conical  bee- 
hive roof,  and  (at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  di'omos),  the  rect- 
angular tomb-chamber,  opening  out  of  the  treasury.  Over  the  outer 
and  inner  doors  are  triangular  openings,  and  round  the  inner  one  were 
sculptured  reliefs  and  bronze  plating.  The  walls  of  the  dromos  were 
of  coloured  marble,  ornamented  with  volutes,  and  the  cornices  were 
covered  with  blue  enamel  such  as  Homer  describes.^ 

The  Lion  Gate,  as  the  oldest  architectural  monument  existing  in 
Greece,  and  as  the  prototype  of  Doric  architecture,  calls  for  additional 
description.^  The  jambs  and  lintel  are  each  formed  of  one  huge  block 
of  stone,  above  which  rears  a slim  column,  tapering  downwards  and 
crowned  with  a flat  round  capital  with  a band  of  spherical  ornaments 
at  the  neck.  Herein  may  be  detected  the  germ  of  the  Doric  capital 
of  later  days.  The  column  is  flanked  by  two  supporters  in  the  form 
of  lions  modelled  with  considerable  accuracy  and  spirit,  the  whole 
forming  a heraldic  group  which  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  frequently- 
recurring  Oriental  motive  of  two  animals  guarding  a sacred  tree.  It 
is  often  found  on  gems  of  the  Mycenaean  age,  in  one  case  actually 
with  a column  between  the  beasts,  and  remarkable  parallels  have  been 
found  on  the  facades  of  rock-cut  tombs  in  Phrygia,  which,  as  they 
probably  date  from  the  eighth  century  b.c.,  seem  to  be  imitations  of 
the  JMycenaean  design. 

Other  Mycenaean  sites  in  Greece  are  Spata  and  Menidi  in  Attica, 
with  beehive  tombs  containing  painted  pottery,  gold  and  ivories ; 
Orchomenos  in  Boeotia,  with  its  Treasury  of  the  Minyae,  and  decora- 
tion resembling  the  beehive  tombs  of  Mycenae ; and  the  recently- 
excavated  cemetery  of  Phylakopi  in  Melos,  which  belongs  to  the 
period  of  the  Cretan  supremacy.^  On  the  other  side  of  the  Aegean 
there  are  lalysos  in  Rhodes,  rich  in  pottery  and  bronze  weapons,  and 
the  second  and  sixth  cities  of  Troy,  in  the  former  of  which  Schliemann 
found  much  gold  treasure.  The  wonderful  collection  of  gold  orna- 
ments not  long  ago  acquired  by  the  British  IMuseum  and  generally 
known  as  the  ‘ Aegina  Treasure’  seems  to  belong  to  the  end  of  the 
Mycenaean  period,  about  the  tenth  century  b.c.,  and  shows  signs  of 
Oriental  influences,  with  figures  from  Egyptian  mythology  (see  p.  246). 
But  most  of  these  finds  have  been  surpassed — at  least  in  regard  to  the 

^ The  doorway  of  the  tomb  was  flanked  by  tapering  columns  ornamented  with  zigzag  bands  of 
spirals.  Fragments  of  these  columns  were  found  in  1810,  and  three  were  removed  to  Ireland  by 
the  first  Marquis  of  Sligo,  whose  grandson  presented  them  to  the  British  Museum  in  1905. 

2 Plate  VIII.  ^ See  Joum.  llellen.  Stud.,  supplementary  volume,  iv.  (1904). 

18 


/’LATE  VI 


HOMEE  AND  MYCENAEAN  CULTUEE 


gold  ornaments  and  pottery — by  the  British  IMuseum  finds  at  Enkomi 
in  Cyprus,^  a site  which  may  represent  the  original  settlement  of 
Teucer  in  the  ‘New  Salamis’  after  the  Trojan  War.  They  include 
a marvellous  and  most  varied  series  of  gold  ornaments,  many  with 
repousse  designs  of  an  advanced  type  or  rich  enamel  decoration ; 
ivories  with  exquisitely-carved  figures  of  animals,  and  faience  vases 
in  the  form  of  human  or  animal  heads,  rivalling  the  fictile  vases  of 
a much  later  period  of  Greek  art;^  and  an  extensive  series  of  painted 
vases,  often  decorated  with  animals  and  human  figures.  On  the  whole 
these  objects  seem  to  be  of  a comparatively  late  date. 

Mycenaean  art  reaches  its  highest  level  in  the  minor  arts  of 
painting,  gem-engraving,  and  metal-work ; sculpture  properly  so 
called  and  architecture  were  as  yet  in  a rudimentary  condition.  The 
frescoes  of  Knossos  and  Tiryns  are  remarkable  for  their  naturalism 
and  power  of  rendering  not  only  animal  but  even  human  forms  ; ^ and 
the  same  skill  is  reflected  in  varying  degree  in  the  engraved  gems. 
A fragment  of  a chased  silver  vase  found  in  1890  at  Mycenae  gives 
a wonderfully  spirited  and  realistic  representation  of  a sortie  from 
a besieged  town,  with  slingers  and  other  combatants,  and  there  is  a 
series  of  double-handled  cups  of  gold  which  are  thought  to  represent 
the  famous  cup  of  Nestor  described  in  the  Iliad.  But  all  these  are 
surpassed  by  the  extraordinary  gold  cups  found  at  Vaphio  near  Sparta, 
with  their  exquisite  and  lifelike  chased  designs  representing  the 
capture  of  bulls.^  They  form  a work  of  art  hardly  surpassed  by  the 
products  of  any  nation  at  any  epoch.  Another  famous  instance  of 
INlycenaean  metal- work  is  the  bronze  dagger-blade,  inlaid  with  a 
hunting-scene  in  gold,  which  Schliemann  found  at  Mycenae.^  Nor 
should  Ave  omit  to  call  attention  to  the  painted  vases  with  their 
remarkable  repertory  of  marine  subjects,  such  as  the  cuttle-fish,  the 
nautilus,  or  various  forms  of  seaweed,  often  drawn  with  a naturalism 
and  eye  for  form  and  detail  worthy  of  the  best  Japanese  craftsmen.^ 

Such  then,  briefly  summarised,  are  the  remains  which  indicate  the 
high  level  of  civilisation  and  artistic  capacity  to  which  this  people 

^ See  British  Museum  Excavations  in  Cyprus  (1900).  2 pjate  iv. 

2 Examples  from  Knossos  are  given  on  Plate  iii.  ; a fresco  from  Tiryns,  with  a man  leaping 
over  a bull,  on  Plate  lix.  ^ Plate  v. 

^ See  Plate  vi.  ; the  other  blade  there  illustrated  is  a good  instance  of  the  typical  Mycenaean 
spiral  ornament. 

® Plate  I.  gives  two  examples  of  Cretan  ware;  Plate  vii.  vases  of  the  ordinary  ^Mycenaean’ 
type. 


19 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 


attained,  a civilisation  which,  if  it  was  not  Greek  in  the  sense  that  no 
direct  development  or  degeneration  can  be  traced  between  it  and  the 
Greece  of  historic  times,  yet  left  its  influence  in  many  ways  on  later 
Greek  art,  and  thus  may  even  be  said  to  have  indirectly  bequeathed  a 
heritage  to  modern  times. 

A question  which,  though  it  has  been  the  subject  of  academic  dis- 
cussion for  some  time  among  scholars,  is  none  the  less  one  of  very 
general  interest,  is  that  of  the  relation  of  Mycenaean  civilisation  to 
that  described  in  Homer,  i.e,  that  of  the  Achaean  people  as  he  repre- 
sents them.  It  has  been  noted  that  in  three  important  points  there 
are  very  wide  discrepancies  which  have  been  thought  to  militate 
against  the  generally  received  theory,  but  to  some  extent  attempts 
have  been  made  to  reconcile  them.  Thus  we  read  in  Homer  that  the 
Achaeans  always  burned  the  bodies  of  their  dead,  whereas  in 
Mycenaean  tombs  the  evidence  always  points  to  burying  (inhumation); 
but  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  two  customs  went  on  side  by  side,  as, 
for  instance,  was  often  the  case  in  prehistoric  Italy.  Again,  the 
armour  depicted  on  Mycenaean  monuments  differs  in  a marked  degree 
from  that  worn  by  Homeric  warriors,  which,  to  judge  from  descrip- 
tions, more  closely  resembled  that  of  early  historic  Greece.  Recent 
researches,  on  the  other  hand,  seem  to  indicate  that  the  JMycenaean 
warrior  wore  no  armour  of  metal,  only  leathern  garments,  protecting 
his  body  with  a huge  shield.^  Tliirdly,  the  remarkable  details  of 
feminine  costume  which  the  monuments  reveal,  with  the  flounced 
‘ divided’  skirts  and  attenuated  waists  (see  p.  205),  are  altogether  alien 
from  the  flowing  robes. of  the  Homeric  ladies.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  undoubtedly  many  close  parallels,  as  indeed  we  have  already 
seen.  The  most  satisfactory  solution  of  the  difficulty  seems  to  be — 
admitting  that  the  Mycenaean  civilisation  is  to  be  regarded  as  Achaean 
— that  the  epic  poet  really  reflects  two  states  of  society,  that  of  his 
own  day,  and  that  of  the  period  which  he  describes  either  from 
tradition  or  from  imagination. 


So  far  we  have  been  dealing  with  actual  remains  of  the  primitive 
period  found  on  Greek  soil,  which  throw  far  more  light  on  the  period 
than  any  literary  record  or  tradition,  even  than  Homer.  But  the 
study  of  archaeology  from  this  aspect  alone  tends  to  become  one-sided, 
and  it  is  always  necessary  to  see — as  has  been  already  partially  done 

^ See  an  interesting  treatise  by  Reicliel,  Ilomerische  Waffen,  2nd  ed.  1901. 


20 


MYTHICAL  ART 

with  Homer — to  what  extent  the  literary  records  have  been  justified 
by  these  discoveries. 

It  has  almost  become  a truism,  as  a result  of  modern  research  in 
various  directions,  that  all  tradition,  however  mythical  in  appearance, 
has  a substratum  of  fact  at  its  basis.  In  the  case  of  the  Greeks  there 
were  not  only  visible  remains  extant  in  the  historical  period  which  they 
desired  to  account  for,  but  found  themselves  unable  ; there  were  also 
religious  rites  and  ceremonies  of  a mysterious  and  sometimes  barbarous 
character.  From  these  two  causes  arose  a legendary  history  and  an 
elaborate  scheme  of  mythology,  by  means  of  which  the  remains  were 
attributed  to  mythical  persons,  and  details  of  ritual  were  explained. 
Thus  the  huge  structures  of  Tiryns  and  JMycenae  were  attributed  to 
the  giant  race  of  Cyclopes,  who  came  from  Lycia  and  built  walls  for 
Proitos  of  Tiryns  and  the  Pelopidae  of  Mycenae.  Hence  this  par- 
ticular form  of  masonry,  with  its  enormous  shapeless  blocks,  has  ever 
since  borne  the  name  of  ‘Cyclopean.’  Stories  of  such  works  attributed 
to  gigantic  or  daemonic  agency  are  common  to  almost  all  nations,  and 
familiar  to  students  of  Teutonic  or  Scandinavian  mythology.  In 
England  we  have  our  ‘ Devil’s  Spittlefuls  ’ and  Weland  Smith’s  cave. 

It  was  also  believed  that  these  fabulous  and  quasi-supernatural 
beings  were  specially  skilled  in  metal  work,  and  hence  the  Greek  stories 
of  the  Daktyli  in  Crete,^  and  the  Telchines  in  Ilhodes,  who  made 
images  of  men  and  animals  that  moved  about  the  highways.  Nor 
should  we  forget  that  one  of  the  Olympian  deities,  Hephaistos,  was 
pre  -eminently  a skilled  smith  and  worker  in  metal,  with  whom  the 
Cyclopes  were  specially  associated,  and  that  Prometheus,  the  legendary 
father  of  civilisation,  was  supposed  to  have  discovered  the  art  of 
modelling  human  figures  in  clay. 

The  first  efforts  in  sculpture  were  centred  round  the  supposed 
personality  of  Daidalos  (the  word  meaning  ‘a  skilled  artificer’),  whom 
even  the  Greeks  hardly  recognised  as  a historical  personage.  Plato 
and  Aristotle  speak  of  him  proverbially  as  a mythical  being ; and  we 
have  already  seen  (p.  5)  that  his  alleged  works  were  typical  of  the 
uncouth  earliest  remains  known  to  later  times.^  It  was  also  said  that 
he  was  the  first  who  ‘ made  statues  to  see  and  walk,’  in  the  sense  that 
he  was  the  first  who  achieved  the  feat  of  distinguishing  the  legs  from 
the  body  and  from  each  other.  In  the  words  of  an  ancient  commen- 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  five  fing’ers  (ddKTv\oi)  of  the  hand,  indicating'  manual  skill. 

^ See  the  collected  passages  from  ancient  writers  referring  to  Daidalos  in  Overbeck’s  Schrift- 
(juellen,  Nos.  74  If. 


21 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 


tator,  ‘ whereas  the  original  craftsmen  made  figures  with  closed  eyes 
and  standing  as  it  were  on  one  foot,  the  legs  not  being  separated, 
Daidalos  . . . was  the  first  who  opened  the  eyelids,  so  that  they 
appeared  to  see,  and  separated  the  legs,  so  that  they  seemed  to  walk, 
and  had  to  be  chained  up  to  prevent  their  running  away,  because  they 
were  now  really  alive.’  We  shall  see  later  that  this  marks  a distinct 
stage  in  the  early  development  of  Greek  art.  Generally  there  is  a 
tendency  with  Greek  writers  to  give  rationalistic  interpretations  of  the 
legends  of  his  marvellous  achievements.  It  has  been  pointed  out  by 
Professor  E.  Gardner  that  the  name  originally  belonged  to  an  artificer- 
god  (sometimes  identified  with  Hephaistos),  or  a magician  of  super- 
human power,  skilled,  as  the  name  implies,  in  all  kinds  of  handicraft. 
In  later  times  he  came  to  be  associated  exclusively  with  sculpture, 
impersonating  its  primitive  efforts.  The  stories  concerning  him  merely 
represent  the  theories  of  Greek  writers  on  early  sculpture,  and  similarly 
the  early  statues  were  attributed  to  him  as  a typical  name. 

Of  Homeric  civilisation  we  have  already  spoken  in  one  connection  ; 
but  it  is  interesting  to  dwell  briefly  upon  the  works  of  art  described  or 
mentioned  in  the  poems,  and  their  bearing  upon  actual  remains.  As  with 
the  civilisation  which  they  describe,  it  is  no  doubt  true  to  a great  extent 
that  the  accounts  are  based  upon  contemporary  works  of  art.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  allowance  must  be  made  for  poetic  imagination,  and 
for  the  possibility  that  they  are  describing  traditional  glories  of  the 
past,  or  at  any  rate  their  reflections  in  the  heirlooms  preserved  to  a 
later  time.  It  is,  however,  possible  with  some  reservations  to  utilise 
the  evidence  the  poems  afford  for  the  state  of  Greek  art  at  the  opening 
of  the  historic  period. 

Such  works  of  art  fall  under  three  heads : real  works,  such  as 
architectural  remains,  sculpture,  or  implements  of  peace  or  war  artisti- 
cally decorated ; purely  mythical  works,  like  the  ‘ automata  ’ of 
Hephaistos  {II.  xviii.),  or  the  golden  youths  in  the  palace  of  Antinoos 
{OcL  vi.);  and  combinations  of  the  real  and  mythical,  like  the  shield 
of  Achilles.  Of  the  Lion  Gate  at  IMycenae  and  other  Cyclopean 
remains  mentioned  by  Homer  we  have  already  spoken.  The  houses 
of  gold  and  bronze,  like  those  of  Menelaos  and  Alkinoos  in  the 
Odijsseif,  have  counterparts  in  actual  historical  fact.  There  was  a 
bronze  house  of  Athena  at  Sparta,  and  the  second  temple  at  Delphi 
and  a house  at  Sikyon  were  of  the  same  kind.  Mention  has  already 
been  made  of  the  methods  of  decoration  with  bronze  plates  and 
cornices  of  blue  enamel  which  find  their  parallels  at  Mycenae  and 
22 


I'LATK  Vll 


MVCKNAKAX  I>A1N'I'KI>  I’O'l  rKKV 


rf.AlE  77// 


THK  UON  CA'I'l':  A'l'  M\C'KNAK 


ART  IN  HOMER 


Orchomenos.  Of  sculpture  in  the  round  there  is,  curiously  enough, 
no  mention,  except  the  statue  of  Athena  at  Troy.  This  was  probably 
not  the  Palladion,  which  is  unknown  to  Homer,  but  was  in  any  case 
a rude  and  barbarous  cult-ima^e  of  the  form  in  which  the  Palladion 
is  always  depicted  in  vase-paintings.  Nor  is  there  any  mention  of 
engraved  gems  or  painted  pottery,  though  both  must  have  been  well- 
known  in  those  days.  But  there  is  more  than  one  description  of 
small  but  elaborate  objects  in  metal-work,  such  as  the  brooch  of 
Odysseus  representing  a dog  killing  a fawn,  or  the  shoulder-belt  of 
Herakles,  which  find  analogies  both  in  Oriental  art  and  in  the 
engraved  gems  and  bronze  reliefs  of  early  Greece. 

The  shield  of  Achilles,  described  in  the  eigliteenth  book  of  the 
Iliad,  is  by  far  the  most  important  work  conceived  by  Homer.  In 
form  and  general  construction  it  differs  in  no  respect  from  real 
objects,  and  even  the  decoration  must  be  in  some  measure  a reflection 
of  what  the  poet  had  actually  seen ; but  the  elaborate  composition 
and  the  extraordinary  number  of  figures  find  no  real  analogy  in 
contemporary  art,  and  we  are  almost  prepared  for  the  mythical 
element  by  the  circumstances  of  its  supernatural  production  in  the 
workshop  of  the  god.  As  regards  the  scheme  of  decoration  which, 
as  Professor  E.  Gardner  points  out,  was  entirely  misunderstood  by 
classical  Greeks,  by  Roman  imitators  like  Virgil,  and  by  the  modern 
artist  Flaxman,  it  has  been  conclusively  demonstrated  by  Professor 
Brunn  that  it  consisted  of  a large  central  space  rej)resenting  the 
universe,  surrounded  by  four  narrow  concentric  bands,  of  wdiich  the 
two  inner  ones  were  divided  each  into  six  distinct  subjects,  the  two 
outer  depicted  respectively  a continuous  choric  dance  and  the  encir- 
cling ocean.  The  inner  scenes  are  all  taken  from  daily  life.  This 
arrangement  is  found  on  metal  bowls  of  Phoenician  workmanship 
from  Cyprus  and  Italy,  which  though  not  older  than  the  sixth  century, 
reflect  the  style  of  an  earlier  age.  It  would  appear  that  the  figures 
were  not  in  relief,  but  were  inlaid  in  different  metals,  as  variations 
of  colour  are  implied.  The  subjects,  it  has  been  pointed  out  by  the 
late  A.  S.  Murray,  all  find  their  parallels  on  the  Phoenician  bowls ; 
but  even  if  they  are  largely  borrowed  from  foreign  prototypes,  we 
may  well  believe  that  the  conceptions  of  the  poet’s  imagination 
embodied  the  truly  Greek  spirit. 

Although  in  Homer  we  find  such  an  advanced  stage  of  artistic 
conception — which  is  indeed  paralleled  by  other  descriptions  of  works 
of  art,  such  as  the  Hesiodic  shield  of  Herakles,  and  two  others  shortly 

23 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 


to  be  discussed — yet  there  is  no  doubt  that  during  the  period  covered 
by  these  poems,  Greek  art,  as  yet  slowly  recovering  from  the  upheaval 
of  the  Dorian  invasion,  was  in  a very  rudimentary  stage,  especially 
as  regards  sculpture.  In  no  class  of  artistic  products  is  this  more 
clearly  seen  than  in  the  pottery  of  the  age  immediately  succeeding  the 
Mycenaean,  in  which  the  vigorous  and  lifelike  portrayal  of  animals 
and  plants  is  replaced  by  the  simple  geometrical  patterns  character- 
istic of  an  uncultivated  race.  Mechanical  as  these  are,  they  yet  show 
some  signs  of  a taste  for  symmetry  and  artistic  arrangement,  but  the 
animal  and  human  representations  which,  by  an  almost  universal 
artistic  law,  appear  in  successive  stages  of  development,  are  for  a long 
time  rudimentary  and  almost  childish  in  their  treatment.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  engraved  gems  found  in  large  numbers  in  the 
Greek  islands  and  elsewhere,^  there  is  a marked  retention  of  iNIycenaean 
forms  and  ideas,  and  indeed  they  differ  little  in  shape,  style,  or  subjects 
from  those  of  the  earlier  civilisation.  Among  other  minor  branches 
of  art  the  figures  in  bronze  and  terra-cotta  stand  on  the  same  level 
as  the  sculpture  on  a larger  scale. 

The  traveller  Pausanias  has  recorded  for  us  a description  of  two 
ancient  works  of  art  which,  though  considerably  later  in  date,  have 
generally  been  regarded  as  the  culmination  of  the  series  of  great 
decorative  works  which  began  with  the  shield  of  Achilles.  His  de- 
scriptions are  so  full  that  by  comparison  with  existing  monuments 
we  are  able  to  arrive  at  a tolerably  satisfactory  restoration  in  each 
case,  and  thus  to  picture  to  ourselves  the  general  appearance  of  what 
were  considered  the  masterpieces  of  their  time. 

These  two  monuments  are  the  chest  of  Kypselos  and  the  throne 
of  Apollo  at  Amyklae.^  The  first-named  stood  in  the  Temple  of 
Hera  at  Olympia,  as  part  of  the  offerings  dedicated  by  the  Kypselid 
tyrants  of  Corinth  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  and  was 
the  work  of  artists  of  that  city ; there  is,  however,  no  reason  for  con- 
necting it  with  the  chest  in  which,  according  to  the  story,  the  child 
Kypselos  was  hidden.  It  was  constructed  of  cedar-wood,  and  the 
figures  were  wrought  partly  in  ivory,  partly  in  gold,  and  partly  in  the 
wood  itself.  The  ornamentation  occupied  either  the  front  of  the  chest 
or  the  front  and  two  sides,  the  whole  being  divided  into  five  friezes ; 
of  these  the  two  upper  and  the  two  lower  were  divided  into  groups, 
each  with  a different  subject,  reckoning  thirty-two  in  all.  Of  these, 

^ See  p.  208  and  Plate  lxxxviii. 

2 Pans.  V.  17-19,  iii.  18.  Reference  should  he  made  to  Frazer’s  Commentary,  ad  hcc. 

24 


THE  CHEST  OF  KYPSELOS 

the  middle  frieze,  running  the  whole  length,  represented  the  meeting 
of  two  armies ; the  upper  one  had  only  two  subjects,  the  wedding  of 
Peleus  and  Thetis,  and  Herakles’  combat  with  the  Centaurs.  The 
remaining  subjects  were  all  mythological  or  personifications  of  a 
religious  nature ; and  herein  we  perceive  a great  contrast  with  the 
earlier  shield  of  Achilles,  on  which  the  subjects  were  all  taken  from 
daily  life.  The  figures  were  identified  by  means  of  inscriptions,  all 
of  which  are  recorded  by  Pausanias,  who  has  left  us  a description  of 
the  monument.  A successful  restoration  of  the  chest  has  recently 
been  made  on  the  basis  of  contemporary  Corinthian  painted  vases 
(see  p.  172),^  which  in  nearly  every  case  supplied  parallel  compositions, 
thus  seeming  to  verify  the  tradition.  At  the  same  time  there  are 
considerable  traces  of  other  influence,  namely  of  the  schools  of  Ionia 
and  of  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  a city  famous  for  its  bronze  relief-work. 

The  throne  at  Amyklae  was  constructed  and  decorated  by  Bathy- 
kles,  an  artist  of  Magnesia  in  Asia  Minor,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
liv^ed  in  the  time  of  Croesus  (about  560-550  b.c.)  ; but  Pausanias’ 
description  of  this  work  is  much  more  meagre  than  that  of  the  chest, 
and  no  restoration  is  possible  beyond  that  of  its  general  arrangement. 
The  statue  of  the  god  which  surmounted  the  throne  was  of  a very 
primitive  type,  columnar  in  form,  and  of  colossal  size ; an  idea  of  it 
may  be  gained  from  a late  coin  of  Sparta.  The  pedestal  and  throne 
were  both  adorned  with  reliefs,  the  latter  being  also  supported  by 
allegorical  figures.  The  subjects  of  the  reliefs  were  similar  in  character 
to  those  on  the  chest,  and  seem  to  have  belonged  to  the  Ionian  school 
of  art,  as  might  have  been  expected  from  the  origin  of  the  artist. 

In  connection  with  the  early  development  of  Greek  art,  an 
important  question  arises  as  to  the  extent  of  its  dependence  upon 
Oriental  influences.  The  tendency  at  one  time  was  to  attribute  all 
early  Greek  art  to  Oriental  sources,  but  of  late  the  pendulum  has 
swung  in  the  opposite  direction,  largely  owing  to  the  influence  which 
the  Mycenaean  discoveries  have  exercised  upon  scholars.  It  is 
becoming  more  and  more  recognised  that  INIycenaean  art  did  impress 
its  character  largely  on  early  Greece,  especially  on  the  people  of  Ionia, 
who  were  its  chief  residuary  legatees.  But  this  theory  will  not  account 
for  all  the  characteristics  of  its  successors. 

On  one  point  at  least  the  caution  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed 
upon  the  casual  visitor  to  a museum,  namely,  that  conclusions  must 

^ Journ.  of  Ilellen.  Stud.,  xiv.  pi.  p.  80  fF. 


25 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 


not  be  based  upon  a superficial  similarity  in  the  character  of  all  early 
art.  It  has  been  said  that  ‘all  children  draw  Assyrian,’  and  in  the 
same  way  the  family  likeness  of  all  rudimentary  art  is  due  to  a 
physiological  cause,  the  universal  sameness  of  human  nature.  This 
accounts  for  the  curious  resemblance  which  has  been  traced  between 
early  Greek  ])ottery  and  that  of  savage  or  lialf- civilised  races  like  the 
Peruvians  or  the  Kabyles  of  North  Africa.  We  have  already  referred 
to  the  shrewd  observation  of  a writer  on  Greek  art  that  the  Greeks 
borrowed  the  alphabet  of  art  from  the  East  in  order  to  write  their 
own  language,  just  as  they  borrowed  that  of  writing ; and  if  we 
investigate  this  statement  more  closely  we  shall  see  that  it  denotes 
the  use  of  a system  of  conventionalities  (just  as  letters  are  conventional 
signs)  to  express  living  forms  in  marble,  bronze,  and  other  materials. 
Let  us,  then,  endeavour  to  see  what  use  the  Greeks  did  actually 
make  of  the  lessons  they  learned  from  their  neighbours. 

Of  their  owm  indebtedness  they  were  indeed  well  aware,  as  their 
legends  and  poems  attest.  Not  only  is  there  the  familiar  story  that 
Kadmos  brought  the  Greek  alphabet  from  Phoenicia,  which  of  course 
contains  a measure  of  truth,  but  the  numerous  allusions  to  the  com- 
mercial and  artistic  ascendency  of  the  Phoenicians  point  the  same 
way.  And  we  shall  see  presently  that  it  was  largely  through  a 
Phoenician  medium  that  they  acquired  their  knowledge  of  Egyptian 
and  Assyrian  art.  To  take  the  Homeric  poems  alone,  we  read  of  the 
silver  bowl  which  Menelaos  acquired  from  the  King  of  Sidon,  and  the 
garments  of  Hecuba,  the  armour  of  Agamemnon,  and  the  bowl  offered 
by  Achilles  as  a prize  for  racing,  all  came  from  similar  sources,  while 
many  of  the  treasures  in  the  palace  of  JMenelaos  were  collected  by 
him  during  his  sojourn  in  Egypt.  But  all  such  evidence  when 
weighed  in  the  balance  will  not  suffice  to  prove  that  Greek  art  was 
purely  adventitious  and  external  in  its  beginnings ; all  that  it  goes 
to  show  is  that  the  Oriental  nations  came  to  their  maturity  at  an 
earlier  date,  while  Greece  was  still,  so  to  speak,  in  the  cradle,  and 
necessarily  dependent  on  outside  sources  for  what  she  could  not  as 
yet  produce  for  herself. 

Egyptian  art,  it  is  now  generally  recognised,  goes  back  to  an  extra- 
ordinarily remote  age,  extending  up  to  4000  b.c.  and  even  earlier,  and 
moreover  its  earliest  remains  display  a marvellous  capacity  for  rendering 
natural  forms,  and  a technical  skill  almost  impossible  for  us  to  compre- 
hend. It  was  thus  full-grown  and  self-contained  long  before  the  first 
crude  essays  of  the  Greeks,  long  even  before  the  time  of  the  wonderful 
26 


ORIENTAL  INFLUENCES 


achievements  of  Crete,  which  in  all  probability  owe  much  to  the 
commercial  relations  of  that  island  with  the  Egypt  of  the  first  few 
dynasties.  But  this  early  art  was  banished  from  Egypt  by  the  invad- 
ing Hyksos  dynasties,  and  was  replaced  in  due  course  by  a new  phase, 
one  in  which  fixed  principles  of  proportion  and  design  were  established, 
but  naturalism  altogether  gave  place  to  conventionality.  This  was 
the  period  of  the  Ramses  and  other  kings  who  produced  the  colossal 
sculptural  and  architectural  monuments  which  represent  the  height  of 
Egyptian  power  and  magnificence.  It  coincides  with  the  later 
Mycenaean  period  in  Greece,  and  although  there  is,  as  we  have  seen, 
evidence  of  importations  in  both  directions,  it  cannot  be  said  that 
Mycenaean  art  reflects  the  character  of  Egyptian  except  in  isolated 
instances.  It  is  not  indeed  until  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  under  the 
great  Psammetichus  (664-610  b.c.)  and  his  successor  Amasis  that  the 
relations  of  Egypt  and  Greece  assume  a historical  character.  But  this 
is  a time  when  Greek  art  had  emerged  from  the  primitive  stage  and  was 
well  on  its  way  to  full  development.  Egyptian  art  of  the  seventh 
century  was,  however,  of  a refined  and  delicate  character,  more  like 
that  of  the  earliest  dynasties,  and  its  perfected  technique  and  elaborate 
system  of  conventionalities,  by  means  of  which  difficulties  were  over- 
come, did  not  come  too  late  to  supply  the  now  rising  art  of  Greek 
sculpture  with  the  required  ‘alphabet.’  By  this  time  the  Greek  artist 
had  no  lack  of  ideas,  but  he  was  still  at  a loss  how  to  express  them. 
In  other  chapters  we  shall  deal  more  in  detail  with  the  influence  of 
Egypt  on  other  arts,  such  as  gem-engraving  and  architecture. 

With  the  other  great  Oriental  nation,  Assyria,  relations  were,  if 
not  so  direct,  of  a similar  kind.  Assyrian  art  was  always  highly 
developed  in  its  owm  line,  manifested  principally  in  the  magnificent 
reliefs  of  Nimrud  and  Kouyunjik  (Nineveh).  From  a high  degree  of 
skill,  however,  it  degenerated  into  mere  conventionality,  devoid  of 
naturalism  and  feeling.  This  conventionality  was  extended  in  an 
unusual  degree  to  organic  life,  as — to  cite  an  instance — in  the  purely 
formal  treatment  of  curls  of  hair  or  features.  In  this  way  it  tended 
to  influence  Greek  art  of  the  archaic  period.  Again,  the  Greeks  were 
largely  indebted  to  Assyria  for  the  subjects  of  their  decorative  art,  it 
not  for  their  technical  methods.  The  lions,  horses,  and  fantastic 
winged  monsters  of  the  Assyrian  reliefs,  and  the  ornamentation  of 
textile  embroideries  provided  many  models  which  the  Greeks  were 
ready  to  adopt,  and  which  became  popular  themes  of  decoration.  As 
in  Egypt,  historical  relations  between  the  two  countries  can  scarcely 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 


have  taken  place  earlier  than  the  time  of  Sargon  (eighth  century  b.c.), 
and  even  then  they  were  hardly  direct. 

The  people  who  acted  as  intermediaries  seem  to  have  been  the 
geographically  intervening  race  of  the  Phoenicians,  whose  art,  it  must 
be  remembered,  was  not  a source  but  a channel  of  influence.  Their 
works  of  art  were  made  for  purely  commercial  purposes,  and  are  found 
in  many  other  parts  of  the  JNlediterranean,  in  Rhodes,  Cyprus,  Sardinia, 
and  Etruria,  but  not  in  Phoenicia  itself.  Further,  such  genuine  pro- 
ducts of  Phoenician  art  are  all  of  late  date,  not  earlier  than  the  seventh 
century  b.c.,  and  they  are  distinguished  by  their  curious  combination, 
without  blending,  of  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  elements.  Their  influence 
is  strongest  in  Cyprus  during  the  period  800-500  b.c.,  especially  in  the 
sculpture  and  many  of  the  terra-cotta  figures  of  that  island ; but 
Cypriote  art  always  preserved  some  measure  of  independence,  and  is 
not  at  any  time  purely  Phoenician.  Moreover,  that  element  prevails 
almost  exclusively  on  certain  sites,  such  as  Kition,  Golgoi,  and  Tamassos. 
We  h ave  seen  that  the  Homeric  poems,  and  especially  the  Odyssey, 
throw  light  on  the  dealings  of  Phoenician  traders  with  Greece,  and 
doubtless  they  had  settlements  in  various  parts  of  the  Aegean,  as  is 
seen,  for  instance,  at  Kameiros  in  Rhodes,  in  the  finds  of  glass  vessels 
and  faience  objects,  which  the  Greeks  sometimes  imitated.  But  the 
rapid  rise  of  Greek  commerce  in  the  seventh  and  sixth  centuries  drove 
the  Phoenicians  from  the  Aegean,  and  with  their  withdrawal  to  the 
Western  Mediterranean  they  are  lost  sight  of  altogether.^ 

The  result  of  this  extension  of  Greek  commerce  is  that  artistic 
communities  spring  up  in  all  parts  of  the  Mediterranean,  each  with  its 
own  school  of  art.  In  Cyprus,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Sicily,  at  Naukratis 
in  Egypt,  and  at  Cyrene  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  as  in  less  im- 
portant centres,  the  same  features  of  independent  centres  for  the 
production  or  collection  of  objects  of  art  are  to  be  observed,  not  less 
than  in  the  chief  towns  and  islands  of  Greece  proper.  The  history  of 
Greek  art  in  the  seventh  and  sixth  centuries  b.c.  is  the  history  of  the 
gradual  coalescence  of  the  different  schools  and  their  final  absorption 
under  the  growing  power  and  all-pervading  influence  of  Athens. 

’ See  generally  for  this  section  El.  A.  Gardner,  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  i.  p.  45  IF. 


28 


CHAPTER  III 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


Pre-historic  architecture — Palaces  at  Tiryns  and  Knossos — The  beginnings  of  the 
temple — The  Doric  style  and  its  characteristics — Typical  Doric  temples — The 
Parthenon — Methods  of  construction — The  Ionic  style — Temples  at  Athens  and 
in  Asia  Minor — The  Corinthian  style — Secular  buildings. 

Greek  architecture,  like  sculpture,  owed  its  development 
chiefly  to  religion ; its  history  is  therefore  largely  the  history 
of  the  development  of  the  Greek  temple.  But  the  earliest 
buildings  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  are  secular  rather  than 
religious  in  character.  For  these  we  must  go  back  to  the  Mycenaean 
period,  in  which  we  see  the  first  rudiments  of  architectural  ideas  ; even 
the  rude  ‘ Cyclopean  ’ masonry  of  those  prehistoric  buildings  at 
Mycenae  and  Tiryns  is  not  without  its  importance  as  a subject  for 
study.  These  structures  have  already  been  described  in  some  detail, 
and  it  is  only  necessary  to  make  a passing  reference  to  them.  In  the 
Lion  Gate  of  IMycenae  we  see  the  prototype  of  the  Doric  column, 
and  in  the  ‘ Treasury  of  Atreus  ’ the  first  attempt  at  vaulted  or  arched 
construction  as  yet  known  ; the  same  may  also  be  said  of  the  galleries 
at  Tiryns,  which  are  virtually  an  arched  passage,  but  are  not  so 
advanced  in  construction  as  the  beehive  tombs. 

JMany  other  ancient  walls  remaining  in  Greece  were  known  as 
Pelasgian,  and  so  far  show  an  advance  on  the  Cyclopean  masonry 
that  the  blocks  are  first  of  all  carefully  fitted  into  one  another  while 
retaining  their  irregular  form,  and  finally  arranged  in  parallel  straight 
courses.  This  method  is  widely  spread  over  the  JMediterranean,  and 
as  a matter  of  fact  lasted  well  into  historic  times. 

Next,  we  have  the  construction  of  the  Homeric  house  to  consider, 
and  its  connection  with  the  palace  discovered  at  Tiryns;  that  of 
Knossos  belongs  to  such  a far  remoter  epoch  that  it  can  hardly  be 
used  for  purposes  of  comparison.  These  two  are,  together  with  the 
scantier  remains  of  palaces  at  JMycenae  and  Troy  (the  sixth  city), 

29 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


almost  the  only  examples  preserved  to  us  of  early  Greek  domestie 
architecture.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  ground-plan — which  is 
of  course  all  that  remains — of  the  Tiryns  palace  has  preserved  for  us, 
though  perhaps  in  a more  elaborate  form,  the  typical  features  of 
Homer’s  descriptions  (see  Fig.  1). 

The  buildings  of  Tiryns  composed  a mere  citadel,  occupying  the 
whole  summit  of  a low  rock,  which  rises  out  of  the  plain,  overlooking 
the  bay  of  Nauplia.  Their  plan  is  further  regulated  by  the  shape  of 
the  rock,  with  a strong  wall  dividing  the  middle,  so  that  if  one  part 
were  taken  the  other  might  still  be  defended.  The  portion  most  open 
to  attack  contained  the  quarters  of  the  guards  and  the  stables,  the 
other  formed  the  palaee.  The  walls  are  of  great  thickness,  with 
chambers  cut  in  them,  and  there  was  one  principal  entrance,  the 
approach  to  which  was  well  exposed  to  fire  from  inside;  the  blocks 
of  masonry  are  not  jointed,  but  the  interstices  are  filled  in  with 
smaller  stones  embedded  in  clay.  Provision  was  made  in  the  tower- 
gateway for  storing  water,  which  could  also  be  fetched  through  a 
postern,  and  there  were  also  arrangements  for  collecting  rain-water 
and  draining  it  into  cisterns. 

From  the  tower-gateway  a passage  led  to  the  outer  courtyard, 
below  which  are  the  remarkable  galleries,  cut  in  the  rock  and  lighted 
by  lateral  apertures,  which  were  used  as  storehouses ; their  roofs  are 
formed  by  horizontal  and  gradually  overlapping  layers  of  projecting 
stones.^  The  inner  courtyard  was  reached  by  a gateway  or  pi'opylaeum^ 
which  resembles  in  plan  that  of  the  Athenian  Acropolis  (see  p.  42), 
and  had  projecting  porticos  with  two  columns  on  each  side ; another 
similar  gateway  led  into  the  aide,  in  which  was  the  altar  of  Zeus 
Herkeios  (‘  of  the  enclosure’),  as  we  read  in  the  account  of  the  palace 
of  Odysseus.  It  was  not  a structural  altar,  but  a mere  slab  of  stone, 
in  which  a hole  was  sunk  leading  to  a pit  below,  serving  as  an  ashpit. 
Round  the  aide  was  a sort  of  cloister  known  as  the  aithousa,  to  which 
Homer  applies  the  epithet  of  ‘ echoing.’  On  the  north  side  of  the 
aide  were  the  various  domestie  apartments,  beginning  with  a porch 
and  vestibule  (pi'odomos),  which  led  to  the  megaron  or  JMen’s  Room, 
a square  apartment,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  the  hearth  ; the  roof 
was  supported  by  four  pillars.  The  men’s  sleeping  apartments  were 
to  the  left  of  this,  quite  apart  from  tlie  chambers  for  women  and 
married  people ; the  former  contained  a bath-room,  which  had  a floor 
formed  by  one  large  slab.^ 

^ See  Plate  ix. 


30 


^ See  Fig.  1 for  these  details. 


PLATE  IX 


/'LA  TK 


'I'HK  I'KMI’I.K  OK  I'OSKIDOX  |>.\KSTl'M 


THE  PALACE  AT  TIRYNS 

The  essential  points  of  similarity  between  Tiryns  and  the  Homeric 
palace  are  the  mile,  the  columned  vestibule  leading  to  the  inner  part, 
the  megaron  or  principal  sitting-room  with  its  central  hearth,  and 
the  complete  isolation — in  accordance  with  Oriental  ideas — of  the 
women’s  apartments.  Clearly  the  mode  of  life  in  Greece  in  the  days 
of  Homer  largely  resembled  the  feudal  system  of  the  JMiddle  Ages  : 
the  baronial  castle  or  palace,  in  which  the  chieftain  and  his  retainers 


Fig.  1.  Plan  of  the  Palace  at  Tiryns. 


lived  a common  life,  surrounded  by  mean  buildings  (of  which  at 
Tiryns  nothing  has  been  preserved),  inhabited  by  the  menial  classes 
or  serving  as  shelter  for  flocks  and  herds.  Architecture  was  purely 
domestic,  and  temples  and  public  buildings  were  practically  unknown.^ 
The  methods  of  construction  and  ornament  used  in  this  palace 
also  deserve  some  attention.  The  walls  were  of  unburnt  brick  on  a 
low  plinth  of  stone,  a method  which  prevailed  for  some  time  in  Greek 

^ For  some  recent  views  in  regard  to  the  arrangements  of  the  Homeric  house,  especially  the 
palace  of  Odysseus,  reference  should  be  made  to  Journ.  of  llellen.  Stud.,  xx.  p.  128,  xxi.  p.  293,  and 
■xxiii.  p.  325  ; also  Noack’s  Jlomerhche  Pallide. 


31 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


architecture,  as  will  be  noted  later  (p.  34),  and  wooden  construction 
was  also  largely  employed,  chiefly  for  columns  and  interior  details. 
The  floors  show  the  first  rude  beginnings  of  mosaic,  being  made  of 
concrete,  the  pebbles  in  which  are  worked  into  simple  patterns.  The 
doorways  were  lined  with  wood,  and  the  columns  were  sheathed  with 
gilt  bronze ; the  walls  were  ornamented  with  similar  bronze  plating 
laid  on  wood,  or  else  stuccoed  over,  and  some  of  the  floors,  as  in  the 
women’s  court,  seem  to  have  been  painted. 

It  is,  however,  probable  that  when  the  results  of  the  excavations  at 
Knossos  in  Crete,  recently  completed,  are  properly  estimated,  our  know- 
ledge of  architecture  in  the  JNIycenaean  period  will  be  not  only  largely 
increased  but  in  a measure  revolutionised.  The  palace  which  has 
recently  been  brought  to  light,^  and  probably  represents  the  world- 
famed  Labyrinth  or  palace  of  the  semi-mythical  Minos,  is  of  vast 
extent,  and  surpasses  even  Tiryns  in  importance.  It  has  been  shown 
to  consist  of  no  less  than  three  stories,  with  countless  ramifying 
passages  and  chambers,  staircases,  store-rooms,  and  magazines,  from  the 
great  throne-room  downwards.  And  that  even  ordinary  domestic 
architecture  was  highly  advanced  in  the  sixteenth  century  b.c.  is 
shown  by  the  recent  discovery  of  a sort  of  faience  mosaic,  composed 
of  models  of  dwellings  of  two  or  three  stories,  with  doors  and  windows 
after  the  manner  of  a suburban  villa.  But  it  is  impossible  at  present 
to  concede  to  these  marvellous  discoveries  more  than  a passing 
mention.  Allusion  must,  however,  be  made  to  one  remarkable  feature 
of  the  Knossian  palace,  the  extraordinarily  developed  system  of 
drainage  and  sanitary  contrivances,  which  are  certainly  without  a 
parallel  in  the  ancient  world,  and  by  no  means  to  be  regarded  with 
contempt  in  the  modern. 

Before  discussing  the  history  of  Greek  architecture  in  the  historical 
period,  a few  general  remarks  on  construction  may  not  be  out  of  place. 
The  oldest  kind  of  masonry,  down  to  the  Homeric  age,  was  that  knoAvn 
by  the  Greeks  as  Cyclopean  or  Pelasgian.  It  is  seen  in  the  walls  of 
Tiryns  and  Mycenae,  and  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  and  consists  of 
large  rough  blocks  of  stone,  not  fitted  together,  but  bedded  in  clay 
mixed  with  straw,  the  cavities  being  filled  in  with  small  stones,  often 
stuccoed  over.  The  next  stage  is  that  of  Polygonal  masonry,  consist- 
ing of  large  blocks  of  irregular  and  varied  form,  but  carefully  fitted 
and  jointed  together,  without  mortar,  clay,  or  clamps  of  metal.  At 

1 See  British  School  Annual,  1809-1904  (vols,  vi.-x.)  for  full  details. 


32 


EARLY  GREEK  CONSTRUCTION 

Delphi  there  are  walls  of  540  ii.c.,  built  of  blocks  with  curved  outlines, 
yet  these  are  fitted  as  carefully  as  the  straight  ones.  This  style  is 
found  at  Eryx  in  Sicily,  in  Etruria,  and  all  over  Greece ; it  extends 
from  about  900  b.c.  down  to  the  sixth  century,  and  is  found  even  as 
late  as  500  in  the  temple  of  Nemesis  at  lihanmus.  In  the  best 
classical  period  all  building  was  of  squared  stones  laid  in  level  courses, 
but  these  were  not  necessarily  of  uniform  height ; the  technical  term 
was  emplekton  or  isodomon,  except  when  the  courses  varied  in  height 
{pseudisodoinon).  JNletal  clamps  were  always  employed,  but  the  blocks 
are  so  well  fitted  together  that  they  appear  superfluous. 

The  principle  of  the  arch,  as  known  to  the  Romans  and  to  ourselves, 
was  entirely  unknown  in  Greece.  Yet  there  are  not  wanting  con- 
structive forms  which  produce  the  same  effect  in  a different  way. 
How  this  was  achieved  at  Mycenae  and  Tiryns  we  have  already  seen. 
The  same  principle,  of  courses  of  stone  projecting  inward  as  they  rise, 
is  found  at  Eryx  in  Sicily,  but  in  one  case  the  uppermost  stones 
have  been  hollowed  out  in  a curve,  so  as  to  form  between  them  a 
semi-circular  opening.  In  a very  ancient  gateway  at  Delos  a straight- 
sided arch  is  produced  by  means  of  two  flat  slabs  laid  together  at  an 
obtuse  angle.  A further  advance  is  made  in  a building  at  Abydos, 
which  is  the  earliest  instance  of  the  genuine  arch-principle.  Here  the 
voussoirs  are  ranged  at  intervals,  the  gaps  being  filled  in  with  small 
stones.  Elsewhere  the  round  head  of  the  arch  is  filled  in  with  stones 
so  as  to  form  a square-headed  doorway. 

Greek  architecture,  like  all  other  branches  of  Greek  art,  is  in  the 
main  of  native  growth,  but  in  this  as  in  everything  else,  the  Greeks 
were  quick  to  seize  whatever  they  found  useful  in  the  art  of  other 
nations.  They  never  borrowed  wholesale,  but  where  they  saw  that  a 
thing  was  good,  they  never  hesitated  to  use  it  and  invest  it  with  their 
own  peculiar  genius.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  the  idea  of  a column  with 
base  and  capital  is  an  Egyptian  one,  but  the  fantastic  varieties  of 
Egyptian  capitals  did  not  appeal  to  them,  and  as  we  know  they  limited 
themselves  strictly  to  three  forms.  But  the  Ionic  capital  may  be  seen 
in  the  germ  in  Assyrian  as  well  as  in  Egyjitian  art,  and  other  details, 
such  as  the  fluting  of  columns  and  the  use  of  vegetable  ornament  may 
be  traeed  to  an  Oriental  origin.  In  the  development  of  the  temple  as 
an  edifice  connected  with  religious  worship  and  ceremonial  they  paid 
but  little  attention  to  foreign  models,  unless  Cyprus  may  be  cited  as 
an  exception,  where  the  Phoenician  element  was  undoubtedly  strong, 

33 


G.  A.— 3 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


as  in  the  great  temple  of  Aphrodite  at  Paplios,  with  its  peculiarly 
im-Greek  plan.  Hut  the  ordinary  Greek  idea  of  a peripteral  temple 
had  no  prototype  eitlier  in  pre-Hellenic  or  Oriental  architecture. 
Greek  architecture  then  was  neither  a mere  adaptation  nor  a sudden 
invention ; the  elements  of  its  forms  had  always  been  latent  in 
tlie  race,  with  its  tendency  to  architectonic  decoration,  and  these 
were  gradually  developed  and  perfected  by  their  creative  genius. 

In  the  development  of  the  Greek  temple  we  may  observe  four  dis- 
tinct stages.  The  earliest,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Mycenaean 
period,  is  that  of  the  open-air  altar,  of  which  we  have  instances  at 
INIycenae,  Tiryns  (in  the  palace  fore-court)  and  Troy.  Homer,  it  is 
true,  speaks  of  the  temple  of  Pallas  at  Troy,  and  of  the  ‘ stone  threshold  ’ 
at  Delphi,  but  here  the  poet  is  blending  a later  element  with  the 
Mycenaean.  At  this  altar  the  father  of  the  family,  or  chief  of  the  tribe, 
offered  sacrifice. 

Next,  we  find  buildings  in  the  form  of  very  small  stone  cells,  with  a 
roof  of  overhanging  stones,  in  which  the  same  principle  of  a rudimentary 
vault  that  was  noted  at  INIycenae  and  Tiryns  is  maintained.  One 
example  of  this  method  of  building  remains  in  an  almost  perfect  state, 
on  Mount  Ocha  in  Euboea.  The  temple  has  an  opening  in  the  centre 
of  the  roof,  towards  Avhich  the  stones  gradually  slope  forward  as  they 
rise,  thus  forming  the  vault ; it  is  also  supplied  with  a door  and  two 
windows  in  the  front. 

Thirdly,  there  is  the  method  of  building  alluded  to  in  describing  the 
palace  at  Tiryns,  in  which  the  walls  are  built  of  unburnt  brick  on  a 
plinth  of  stone,  the  columns  and  roof  being  of  wood.  The  traveller 
Pausanias  in  his  description  of  the  temple  of  Hera  at  Olympia,  noted 
that  it  was  constructed  in  this  fashion,  and  his  statement  has  been 
established  by  excavations.  The  tiles  and  other  external  decorations 
were  of  terra-cotta,  a very  favourite  material  for  this  purpose  with  the 
Greeks,  Avhich  remained  in  favour  down  to  quite  late  times.  The 
original  stone  plinth  of  the  Hera  temple  is  still  standing,  but  the 
columns  are  gone.  Pausanias,  however,  tells  us  that  as  they  decayed, 
they  had  been  replaced  by  columns  of  stone,  and  that  only  one  wooden 
column  existed  in  his  day.  Dr.  Dorpfeld,  one  of  the  chief  authorities 
on  ancient  architecture,  dates  this  temple  about  1000  r>.c. 

I^astly,  we  come  to  the  period  when  stone  was  employed  throughout 
as  the  material  for  the  main  construction,  terra-cotta  being  restricted 
to  tiles  and  other  smaller  details.  The  earliest  of  these  buildings  are 
34 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  TEMPLES 


in  the  style  of  architecture  known  as  Doric,  but  in  Asia  Minor  the 
Ionic  style  can  claim  an  almost  equally  early  origin. 

The  various  kinds  of  temples  in  the  Doric  style  are  defined  and 
described  for  us  by  Vitruvius  the  architect,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  and  his  classification  still  serves.  Roughly  speaking,  a 
Greek  temple  consists  of  three  parts,  the  interior  chamber  or  cella,  the 
vestibule  or  porch,  and  the  outer  colonnade,  and  the  distinction  between 
the  different  classes  rests  on  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the 
exterior  columns.  The  simplest  form  of  temple,  without  any  columns 
except  two  forming  the  entrance  to  the  vestibule,  with  square  pilasters 
terminating  the  side  walls,  is  known  as  in  antis  (Fig.  2).  The  next 
stage  was  to  place  a row  of  four  columns  along  the  front,  and  this  was 
knoAvn  as  pi'ostyle  (Fig.  3).  When  the  row  of  four  columns  was 


Fig.  2.  In  Antis. 


o o o o 


Fig.  3.  Prostyle. 


o o o o 


o o o o 

Fig.  4.  Amphipro.style. 


repeated  at  the  back,  the  temple  was  called  ampkijjrostyle,  or  ‘with 
columns  in  front  at  either  end’  (Fig.  4).  The  next  advance  was  to 
place  a row  of  columns  along  each  side  in  addition,  and  thus  the 
temple  was  completely  surrounded  with  columns,  ox  peripteral  (Fig.  5). 
An  additional  row  of  columns  all  round  made  the  temple  dipteral  or 
‘double  winged’  (Fig.  C),  or  if,  as  sometimes  happened,  the  inner  row 
was  then  omitted,  it  was  called  pseudo-dipteral.  A rare  variety  of  the 
peripteral  temple  was  known  as  pseudo-peripteral  (Fig.  7),  the  columns 
at  the  sides  not  standing  free  hut  being  ‘ engaged  ’ along  the  walls, 
projecting  from  them  to  the  extent  of  a semi-circle.  An  example  of 
this  type  (the  plan  of  which  is  that  reproduced  in  Fig.  7)  is  the  great 
temple  of  Zeus  at  Agrigentum  in  Sicily. 

Peripteral  temples  were  also  classified  according  to  the  number  of 
columns  on  the  front,  as  tetrastyle  (only  occurring  in  the  prostyle 
variety),  heocastyle,  octostyle,  and  so  on.  It  is  indeed  obvious  that  no 

35 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


peripteral  temple  can  have  less  than  six  columns  at  front  and  back  ; 
equally,  no  dipteral  or  pseudo-dipteral  can  have  less  than  eight.  It 
was  also  a rule  that  the  number  of  side-columns  was  never  less  than 
double  tlie  number  on  the  front.  No  examples  of  dipteral  temples 
in  the  Doric  style  are  known,  but  they  are  added  here  for  the  sake 
of  completeness.  Abnormal  buildings  are  also  found  in  the  Doric 
style,  such  as  the  temple  at  Paestum  known  as  the  Basilica,  which 
is  double,  with  nine  columns  on  the  front  and  a dividing  row  down 
the  middle,  or  the  Hall  of  the  Mystics  at  Eleusis,  which  had  twelve 
columns  on  the  front  only.  The  commonest  form  of  Doric  temple 


O O O O O O 


O 


O 


O O O O O O 

Fig.  5.  Peripteral. 


ooooo 
.000  00 

OOOOO 

00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 


ooooo 

OOOOO’ 

ooooo 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 


ooooo 
00  o 00 
00  000 


ooooo 

ooooo 

ooooo 


Fig.  6.  Dipteral. 


is  hexastyle  peripteral,  but  the  Parthenon,  the  most  perfect  product 
of  the  style,  is  octostyle. 

Remains  of  Doric  temples  are  found  all  over  Greece  and  the 
Western  Mediterranean,  and  there  is  one  instance  in  Asia  JMinor,  at 
Assos.  The  following  list,  which  is  roughly  chronological,  may  be 
found  useful : — 


I.— SICILY  AND  ITALY  1 


Syracuse  (Ortygia),  Temple  of  Apollo, 
Do.  Olympieion, 

Selinus,  Temple  C, 

Do.  Temple  D, 


Hexastyle, 

Hexastyle. 

Hexastyle. 

Hexastyle, 


580-570  B.c. 


570-550  B.c. 


1 Oil  the  temples  included  in  the  foregoing  list,  and  others  of  which  only  little  remains,  see 
Koldewey  and  Puclistein,  Die  griechischen  Tempel  in  Unteritalien  und  Sicilien,  1899,  whence  most  of 
the  above  details  are  taken. 

36 


EXISTING  DORIC  TEMPLES 


I.— SICILY  AND  VYAI.Y— continued. 


Paestum, 

Basilica, 

Enneastyle. 

Selinus, 

Temple  F, 

Hexastyle, 

550-540  B.c. 

Pompeii, 

Heptastyle  pseudo-dipt. 

Selin  us, 

Temple  G, 

Octostyle  pseudo-dipt.. 

540-510  B.c. 

Paestum, 

Temple  of  Demeter, 

Hexastyle. 

Agrigentiim, 

Temple  of  Herakles, 

Hexastyle, 

510-500  B.c. 

Selinus, 

Temple  A, 

Hexastyle, 

500-480  B.c. 

Do. 

Temple  E, 

Hexastyle. 

Do. 

Temple  O, 

Hexastyle. 

Agrigentum, 

Temple  of  Zeus  Olym-  Heptastyle  pseiido-peript.,  480-440  b.c. 

pios. 

Do. 

Temple  of  Hera, 

Hexastyle. 

Paestum, 

Temple  of  Poseidon, 

Hexastyle, 

440-430  B.c. 

Segesta, 

Hexastyle, 

430-420  B.c. 

Syracuse, 

Temple  of  Athena 

Hexastyle, 

420-400  B.c. 

(Cathedral), 

Agrigentum, 

Temple  of  Concord, 

Hexastyle. 

Do. 

Temple  of  Dioscuri, 

Hexastyle, 

340-330  B.c. 

Do. 

Temple  of  Hephaistos,  Hexastyle 

Selinus, 

Temple  B, 

Prostyle, 

240-200  B.c. 

Paestum, 

Hexastyle  ; no  columns 

200-1  50  B.c. 

at  back ; Corinthian 

caps,  used. 

[There  are  also 

remains  of  Doric  temples  at  Gela,  Himera,  and 

elsewhere  in  Sicily: 

and  at  Tarentum,  Metapontum,  Rhegium, 

and  Kroton  in  Magna  Graecia.] 

IT— 

GREECE. 

Olympia, 

Heraion, 

Hexastyle, 

Tenth  century  b.c. 

Corinth, 

Hexastyle, 

650-600  B.c. 

Corcyra, 

Hexastyle, 

600-500  B.c. 

Athens, 

Old  Temple  on  Aero 

- Hexastyle, 

560  B.c. 

polis. 

Delphi, 

Temple  of  Apollo, 

Hexastyle, 

550-500  B.c. 

Aegina, 

Temple  of  Aphaia, 

Hexastyle, 

540  B.c. 

Assos  (Asia  Minor), 

Temple  of  Athena, 

Hexastyle, 

470  B.c. 

Olympia, 

Temple  of  Zeus, 

Hexastyle, 

470-457  B.c. 

Athens, 

Theseion  (so-called), 

Hexastyle, 

465  B.c. 

Rhamnus  (Attica), 

Temple  of  Nemesis, 

Hexastyle, 

450  B.c. 

Do. 

Temple  of  Themis, 

In  antis, 

450-400  B.c. 

Athens, 

Parthenon, 

Octostyle, 

450-438  B.c. 

Sunium  (Attica), 

Temple  of  Poseidon  (.^),  Hexastyle, 

440  B.c. 

Phigaleia  (Arcadia),  Temple  of  Apollo, 

Hexastyle, 

440  B.c. 

Eleusis, 

Hall  of  Mystics, 

Dodecastyle  prostyle. 

440  B.c. 

Argos, 

Heraion, 

Hexastyle, 

420  B.c. 

Tegea  (Arcadia), 

Temple  of  Athena  Alea,  Hexastyle, 

390  B.c. 

Delos, 

Temple  of  Apollo, 

Hexastyle, 

Third  century  b c. 

87 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


Of  the  earlier  temple  at  Syracuse  only  two  columns  are  left, 
standing  very  close  together,  the  intercoliimniation  being  less  than 
their  diameter.  The  columns  in  antis  have  bases,  the  others  rest  on 
square  plinths ; they  are  somewhat  stumpy,  and  the  echinus  of  the 
capital  has  a very  marked  curve.  The  columns  of  the  later  temple 
are  now  built  into  the  cathedral,  Cicero  tells  us  that  Verres  picked 
the  gold  and  ivory  ornamentation  off  the  doors,^  and  we  know  that  on 
the  pediments  were  gold  shields  as  landmarks  for  sailors.  The  early 
temple  at  Corinth  is  in  little  better  preservation  than  the  first-named, 
only  seven  columns  still  standing,  with  part  of  the  entablature.  It  had 
fifteen  side-columns  and  two  distinct  cellae ; the  proportions  are  ex- 
ceedingly massive,  and  there  are  other  signs  of  great  archaism. 

The  temples  of  Sicily  and  Italy  are,  as  a rule,  larger  and  finer 
in  plan,  if  not  in  details,  than  those  of  Greece,  and  Selinus  is  no 
exception  in  this  respect.  Here  we  find  remains  of  no  less  than  eight 
temples,  ranging  (with  one  exception)  from  about  580  to  480  b.c.  ; the 
city  was  destroyed  in  409  b.c.,  which  gives  a lower  limit  of  date.  Four 
(A-D)  stand  on  the  Acropolis,  one  (O)  close  by,  and  three  (E-G)  in 
the  plain  below,  in  the  Agora.  In  Chapter  v.  some  description  will 
be  given  of  the  interesting  sculptured  metopes  belonging  to  three  of 
these  temples  (p.  77).  The  three  on  the  Acropolis  have  a very  narrow 
cella,  and  the  number  of  side-columns  exceeds  double  the  number  on 
the  front  by  no  less  than  seven.  The  temple  lettered  G,  that  of  Zeus, 
was  never  completed ; at  one  end  it  is  in  antis,  without  end-columns, 
and  the  cella  has  three  almost  equal  aisles.  The  columns  diminish 
greatly  in  proportion  to  their  size,  and  are  only  fluted  at  one  end. 
Some  of  the  mouldings  are  archaistic  in  character.  The  temple  at 
Segesta  stands  almost  intact,  except  that  the  cella  is  gone ; the 
columns  are  not  fluted,  and  the  projections  by  means  of  which  the 
drums  were  placed  in  position  have  not  been  removed.  Of  the  other 
Sicilian  temples,  those  at  Agrigentum  are  of  great  interest.  The  one 
known  as  the  Temple  of  Concord  is  very  perfect,  and  has  staircases 
and  doors  leading  on  to  the  roof.  The  earliest,  that  of  Zeus,  is  a very 
remarkable  building,  though  now  in  ruins,  both  from  its  curious  plan, 
its  abnormal  size,  and  the  huge  figures  of  giants  which  support  the 
inner  columns  of  the  cella.  The  bict  that  a man  can  stand  within  one 
of  the  flutings  of  the  columns  will  perhaps  give  some  idea  of  the 
colossal  scale  on  which  it  is  built. 

Of  the  temples  at  Paestum,  one,  that  of  Poseidon,"  still  remains  in 

1 In  Verrem,  iv.  50.  ^ See  for  a general  view  Plate  x. 

38 


PLATE  XI 


PLATE  ATI 


DORIC  TEMPLES  IN  GREECE 


a nearly  perfect  state,  even  to  the  row  of  upper  columns  inside  the 
cella.  It  dates  from  about  440  n.c.,  and  measures  200  by  79  feet 
along  the  bottom  step ; it  has  fourteen  side-columns,  about  seven  feet 
in  diameter.  JNIany  of  the  architectural  details  and  optical  corrections 
are  of  great  interest.  Of  the  others,  one  is  in  a sort  of  debased  style, 
with  greatly  exaggerated  entasis  (see  p.  43)  in  the  columns ; the 
double  cella  in  the  Basilica,  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made, 
is  probably  evidence  of  its  having  been  consecrated  to  two  distinct 
divinities. 

Turning  now  to  the  temples  of  Greece  proper,  we  find  in  that  at 
Aegina  the  most  typical,  because  normal,  example  of  a Greek  temple. 
It  is  in  fairly  good  preservation,  and  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  sculp- 
tured decoration  of  the  pediments,  now  removed  to  JMunich,  which 
will  be  described  in  Chapter  v.  Recent  excavations  (1901)  have 
added  to  our  knowledge  of  the  temple  and  its  surroundings,  and  have 
established,  by  means  of  an  inscription,  its  dedication  to  the  goddess 
Aphaia.  It  is  built  of  a yellowish  limestone,  except  the  roof  and  the 
sculpture,  which  were  of  marble.  Equally  celebrated  for  its  sculpture 
decoration  was  the  great  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  of  which,  how- 
ever, nothing  remains  standing : it  was  only  excavated  some  twenty- 
five  years  ago.  It  was  built  by  the  Eleians,  with  Libon  as  architect, 
on  a stylobate  of  poros-stone  measuring  210  by  8G  feet.  Of  the 
architectural  fragments  discovered  in  excavation,  the  well -designed 
capitals  are  most  noteworthy ; the  pavement  of  the  cella,  in  black 
limestone  and  white  marble,  has  also  been  preserved,  together  with 
marble  roof-tiles.  It  was,  of  course,  specially  celebrated  in  antiquity 
as  containing  the  great  chryselephantine  statue  of  Olympian  Zeus 
(p.  97),  which  stood  at  the  western  end  of  the  cella. 

Among  the  other  temples  of  the  Peloponnesos,  that  of  Apollo  at 
Phigaleia — or  more  accurately,  Bassae — is  of  the  chief  importance.^ 
It  lies  in  a wild  and  magnificent  situation  in  a remote  corner  of 
Arcadia,  and  was  built  about  435  b.c.,  by  Iktinos,  the  architect  of 
the  Parthenon.  The  plan  is  decidedly  curious ; and  a further 
peculiarity  is  that  it  lies  north  and  south  instead  of  east  and  west. 
As  it  was  considered  appropriate  that  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun 
should  strike  upon  the  cult-statue  of  the  Sun-god,  this  was  placed 
against  the  west  wall,  and  a door  in  the  east  wall  immediately 
opposite  admitted  the  light  upon  it.  The  peculiarity  of  the  plan  is 
that  the  inner  columns  of  the  cella  are  united  to  the  sides  by  cross- 


^ See  Plate  xi. 


39 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


walls  throughout,  forming  a row  of  chambers  like  the  side-chapels  of  a 
cathedral,  which  were  probably  used  for  storing  offerings.  These 
columns  were  of  the  Ionic  order  of  architecture,  with  capitals  of  an 
archaic  type  (see  p.  4G),  but  the  rest  of  the  temple  was  Doric.  The 
sculptured  frieze,  which  is  described  elsewhere  (p.  112)  ran  round 
the  inside  of  tlie  cella,  the  greater  part  of  which  was  open  to  the 
air,  but  the  part  over  the  statue  was  roofed  in.  The  peculiarities  of 
design  seem  to  be  due  to  the  temple  being  built  on  the  site  of  an 
older  shrine.  The  temple  at  the  neighbouring  site  of  Tegea  is 
chiefly  remarkable  as  the  latest  example  of  the  Doric  style  in  Greece ; 
apparently  only  the  outer  colonnade  was  in  this  order  of  architecture, 
the  rest  being  in  the  two  later  styles ; but  this  only  rests  on  the 
statement  of  Pausanias,  which  has  not  been  confirmed  by  the 
excavations. 

Lastly,  we  come  to  the  two  great  temples  of  Athens,  one  famous 
for  the  perfect  condition  in  which  it  has  been  preserved,  the  other  for 
its  past  glories,  as  the  centre  of  Athenian  worship  and  the  abiding-place 
of  the  masterpieces  of  Athenian  sculpture  which  are  described  in 
Chapter  vr.  The  former,  the  so-called  Theseion,^  is,  like  the  temple  at 
Aegina,  a good  example  of  the  normal  type  of  Doric  temple.  Its 
real  name  is  quite  uncertain,  as  is  also  the  date  of  its  erection,  though 
we  know  tliat  the  building  called  the  Theseion  by  ancient  writers  was 
erected  to  receive  the  bones  of  Theseus  by  Kimon  about  469  b.c. 
Except  for  a few  alterations  made  on  its  conversion  into  a Christian 
church,  it  stands  complete  as  in  the  time  of  Pericles,  but  for  the  loss  of 
the  colouring  and  other  embellishments  of  Greek  temples.  It  is 
built  of  a fine  yellow  Pentelic  marble,  on  a stylobate  of  two  steps. 
The  sculptured  decoration  included  pedimental  groups  (now  lost),  a 
frieze  running  round  the  cella,  and  a series  of  metopes  at  the  east  end  ; 
these  are  described  in  Chapter  vi. 

Although  deviating  in  some  points  from  the  normal  type,  the 
Parthenon  is  by  far  the  most  beautiful  and  interesting  of  all  existing 
Greek  temples.’  It  was  built  to  replace  the  older  temple  of  Athena 
which  was  burnt  down  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion,  and  was 
completed  in  438  b.c.,  the  architects  being  Iktinos  and  Kallikrates. 
The  sculptured  decoration  was  under  the  general  supervision  of 
Pheidias.  It  was  of  Pentelic  marble  throughout,  and  measured  228 
by  101  feet,  more  than  double  the  dimensions  of  the  Theseion.  The 
building  consists  of  a cella  divided  into  two  chambers,  the  smaller 

^ See  Plate  xir.  - See  Plate  xiii.  The  plan  is  given  in  Fig.  8. 

40 


c 


Fig.  8.  Part  of  the  Athenian  Acropolis,  with  plans  of  Parthenon  (a),  Erechtheion  (r),  and 

Old  Temple  of  Athena  (c). 


41 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


known  as  the  opisthodomos  or  Parthenon  proper,  containing  sacred 
vessels,  vestments  and  furniture.  Tlie  main  portion  of  the  cella,  100 
feet  in  length,  was  called  the  naos  hekatompedos,  and  this  contained 
the  great  statue  of  Athena  by  Pheidias,  facing  towards  the  eastern 
doorway.  The  surrounding  columns  numbered  eight  at  the  ends  and 
seventeen  at  the  sides. 

Tlie  present  condition  of  the  Parthenon  is  bimiliar  even  to  those 
who  have  not  been  privileged  to  visit  the  building  itself ; it  may  at  all 
events  be  realised  from  the  model  in  the  Elgin  Room  of  the  British 
Museum.^  Up  to  the  year  1687  it  remained  almost  intact,  except  for 
alterations  made  by  the  Emperor  Constantine  in  a.d.  330,  in  order  to 
convert  it  into  a Christian  church.  In  the  above  year  Athens  was 
bombarded  by  the  Venetians,  and  the  Turks,  who  were  then  occupying 
the  city,  stored  their  powder  inside  it ; a bomb  from  the  Venetians  fell 
into  the  middle,  with  the  result  that  a large  part  of  the  middle  of  the 
building  was  destroyed.  In  1801-3  the  sculptures  were  sav-ed  from 
further  destruction  by  the  wise  and  liberal  Lord  Elgin,  who  carried 
them  off  to  England  to  their  safe  resting-place  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  Propylaea  or  gateway  of  the  Acropolis  was  erected  by  Pericles 
about  435  r.c.  to  replace  a smaller  one,  IMnesikles  being  the  architect : 
It  consists  of  a double  Doric  portico,  the  outer  and  inner  entrances 
connected  by  a row  of  six  Ionic  columns.  As  originally  planned  it 
should  have  had  a wing  on  either  side,  but  only  that  on  the  north,  the 
Pinakotheke  or  Picture  Gallery,  was  actually  completed.  Its  present 
condition  is  remarkably  perfect. 

A sacred  building  of  abnormal  character  is  the  cry]Ko<;  pvo-riKo^ 
or  Court  of  the  Initiated  at  Eleusis,  where  the  mysteries  were 
performed.  It  was  built  by  Iktinos  about  440  b.c.,  and  consists  of  a 
square  hall,  the  roof  of  which  was  supported  by  forty-two  Doric 
columns  ; on  the  south  was  a portico  of  later  date.  The  foundations 
and  plan  of  this  building  were  brought  to  light  by  the  Greek 
Archaeological  Society  some  years  ago. 

The  older  temples  of  Greece  are  built  entirely  of  stone,  except  so 
far  as  painted  terra-cotta  is  used  for  tiles,  cornices,  and  such  like  decora- 
tions, but  with  the  increased  quarrying  of  marble,  the  use  of  the  latter 
became  more  and  more  extended.  At  first  only  the  columns,  sculpture, 
or  roof-tiles  were  of  marble,  as  at  Aegina  atid  Phigaleia  ; finally  it  was 
used  throughout.  'J'here  is  also  in  the  later  temples  a tendency  to 

• There  is  also  one  in  the  Royal  Scottish  Museum  at  Edinburgh. 


42 


I'HK  I’AK'I'HKXOX  WKS'l'KRX  FACA 1 )K. 


PLATE  XIV 


DETAILS  OF  DORIC  STYLE 


mix  the  styles,  as  we  have  seen  at  Pliigaleia  and  Tegea  ; even  in  the 
Parthenon  Ionic  columns  were  used  to  support  the  roof  of  the 
opisthodomos.  Colouring  was  generally  and  extensively  employed, 
especially  for  the  ornamental  patterns  on  the  mouldings,  the  palmette, 
maeander,  wave-moulding,  egg-and-dart,  and  acanthus  all  being  ren- 
dered in  bright  red  and  blue,  picked  out  with  gold.  Care  was  taken 
in  the  distribution  of  the  ornament  that  curved  surfaces  should  receive 
curvilinear  patterns,  fiat  surfaces  rectilinear. 

Comparatively  little  moulding  was  employed  about  Doric  buildings, 
as  compared  with  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  styles;  they  consist  indeed 
mainly  of  plain  surfaces  with  painted  ornament,  whereas  the  other  two 
orders  consist  of  moulded  surfaces  with  carved  ornament.  The 
principal  mouldings  used  in  Doric  architecture  may  be  observed  in 
the  adjoining  diagram  of  the  entablature  (Fig.  9) ; the  torus  and 
scotia  (see  p.  46),  being  purely  base-mouldings,  are  not  found  in 
this  style,  as  the  columns  never  have  bases. 

Certain  points  may  also  be  noted  which  characterise  the  Doric 
style,  and  allow  of  ascertaining  differences  of  date.  Thus  the  inter- 
cohimniation,  or  distance  between  the  columns,  is  usually  very 
narrow ; the  columns  are  at  first  short  in  proportion,  diminishing 
upwards  in  a very  marked  degree,  but  become  gradually  slimmer  and 
straighter  ; the  cella  is  proportionately  narrow,  and  the  echinus,  or 
cushion-like  top  of  the  column  spreads  out  widely  at  first,  but  tends  to 
become  less  heavy.  The  Doric  column  never  has  a base  until  late 
and  decadent  times.  As  a rule  monoliths  are  preferred  when  possible. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  construction  of  a Doric 
temple  is  the  use  of  Optical  Corrections,  a principle  which  we  find 
difficult  to  realise,  but  one  necessitated  by  the  clearness  and  brilliancy 
of  the  Mediterranean  atmosphere,  which  tends  to  give  false  impressions 
of  lines  and  curves  to  the  eye.  Thus  it  was  discovered  tliat  if  a column 
was  designed  with  a straight  line  from  cap  to  base,  the  profile  against 
the  sky  appeared  concave,  as  if  eaten  away,  and  it  was  necessary  to 
counteract  this  by  constructing  it  with  a more  or  less  convex  outline. 
In  some  temples,  such  as  the  oldest  at  Paestum,  this  bulge,  known  as 
entasis,  is  very  marked,  even  at  first  sight.  Again,  all  horizontal  lines 
are  really  curves,  slightly  convex  on  the  upper  surface,  in  order  (for 
instance)  to  prevent  any  appearance  of  sagging  which  might  be  caused 
by  heavy  monoliths  lying  on  the  tops  of  columns. 

Thirdly,  the  columns  are  so  arranged  that  their  axes  slope  inwards 
at  right  angles  to  the  sides,  except  the  angle-columns,  which  bisect  the 

43 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 

angles  at  the  corners.  It  has  been  calculated  that  the  axes  of  the 
Parthenon  columns,  which  are  inclined  one  foot  in  150,  would  meet  at 


Fig.  9.  Diagram  of  Doric  Entablature  (from  the  Theseion). 


a height  of  5856  feet.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  impart  an  appearance  of 
stability  to  the  building.  Further,  the  angle-columns  are  made  thicker 
than  the  others,  because  otherwise  they  would  look  smaller,  being 
44 


THE  IONIC  STYLE 


against  the  bright  background  of  the  sky,  than  those  against  the  dark 
background  of  tlie  building.  It  is  obvious  that  when  these  and  other 
adjustments  had  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  the  cutting  of  the 
marble  became  a very  complicated  affair.  Another  difficulty  was  that 
of  getting  the  metopes  approximately  of  equal  size ; the  alternate 
triglyphs  being  placed  exactly  over  the  centre  of  the  columns,  there 
would  be  spaces  left  over  at  the  ends.  This  was  compensated  for  by 
lessening  the  intercolumniation  at  the  angles. 

It  has  generally  been  supposed,  and  probably  rightly,  that  the  Doric 
style  is  derived  from  architecture  in  wood.  We  have  already  seen 
that  wood  was  used  for  columns  at  Tiryns  and  Ol3mipia,  and  for  a 
long  time  roofs  must  have  been  largely  constructed  of  wood,  with 
terra-cotta  roof-tiles.  The  derivation  of  architectural  members  from 
wooden  prototypes  is  to  be  observed  in  other  countries,  as  in  Egypt, 
where  the  pillars  are  copied  from  bundles  of  reeds  tied  together,  or 
from  palm-trees,  and  the  same  is  seen  in  Assyria  and  Persia.  So  in 
the  Doric  style  the  fluting  of  the  columns  represents  the  striated 
surface  of  a tree-trunk,  the  mouldings  at  the  top  the  metal  bands 
which  were  placed  round  the  wood  to  prevent  its  splitting,  and  the 
gabled  roof  represents  the  ordinary  type  of  wooden  roof  with  tie-beams 
and  rafters.  In  this  case  the  trigl^^phs  represent  the  ends  of  the  rafters 
with  the  tie-beam  between,  to  which  each  pair  was  nailed,  and  the 
metopes  are  the  spaces  in  between  (as  the  meaning  of  the  word 
implies).  These  latter  were  afterwards  filled  in,  as  were  the  ends  of 
the  gables,  and  covered  with  sculptured  or  painted  decoration. 

The  Ionic  style  presents  in  many  respects  an  interesting  contrast 
to  the  Doric.  Vitruvius  aptly  compares  its  proportions  to  those  of 
a woman,  the  Doric  to  those  of  a man.  Not  only  is  it  lighter  and 
more  graceful,  but  it  is  also  richer  and  less  severe  than  Doric, 
reflecting  the  characteristics  of  the  more  luxurious  Ionian  races  of 
Asia  INIinor,  to  whom  it  owes  its  introduction  into  Greece.  Like 
the  Doric  style,  it  probably  owes  much  to  Oriental  influence,  and  its 
prototypes  may  be  seen  in  the  columns  of  Persepolis,  with  their  volute 
capitals,  and  elsewhere  in  the  East.  Tliere  is  no  evidence  of  an  origin 
from  wooden  architecture.  Though  always  at  home  in  Asia  JNIinor, 
it  never  became  popular  in  Greece,  and  only  isolated  examples  have 
been  found  before  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  That  it  was  used 
in  one  of  the  old  temples  on  the  Athenian  Acropolis  earlier  than 
480  B.c.  has  been  shown  by  recent  excavations,  and  there  was  also 

45 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


a small  temple  at  Athens  on  the  banks  of  the  Ilissos,  the  scanty  remains 
of  which  seem  to  show  a transition  from  one  style  to  the  other. 

As  regards  the  main  points  of  difference  from  the  Doric  style,  the 
most  notable  is  the  absence  of  the  triglyphs  and  metopes,  their  place 

being  taken  by  a plain  continuous  frieze, 
usually  sculptured.  The  architrave  is  always 
broken  up  into  three  fasciae  or  sloping 
bands,  one  over  the  other ; the  columns 
are  smaller  and  taller  in  proportion,  and 
optical  corrections  are  mostly  disregarded ; 
the  intercolumniation  is  wider,  and  the 
slope  of  the  pediment  steeper.  The 
columns  invariably  have  bases,  of  which 
there  are  two  main  varieties : the  Attic, 
consisting  of  a hollow  {skotia)  between  two 
projections  {tori),  and  the  Ionian,  which  is 
moulded  with  curious  horizontal  flutings. 
The  flutings  of  the  columns  are  divided  by 
fillets.^ 

The  main  feature,  however,  which  dis- 
tinguishes this  from  the  two  other  orders 
of  Greek  architecture  is  the  capital  with 
its  volutes.  It  appears  to  be  derived  from 
a floral  termination  to  a column,  the  volutes 
representing  curling  leaves  or  sepals  of  a 
calyx  on  either  side.  These  volutes  were 
always  very  carefully  designed,  with  mathe- 
matical accuracy,  the  centre  or  ‘ eye  ’ being 
cut  out  and  filled  with  gilt  bronze  or 
precious  stones.  By  an  ingenious  device 
the  corner  volutes  at  the  angles  of  the 
temples  are  bent  forward,  in  order  to  get 
one  on  each  side  of  the  angle  and  avoid 
the  side-view  of  the  capital.  In  some  of 
the  earlier  examples  of  Ionic  capitals,  represented  by  the  row  of 
columns  inside  the  temple  at  Phigaleia,  the  top  line  between  the 
volutes  is  not  curved  downwards  as  usual,  but  arched  in  convex  form. 
The  space  in  between  the  volutes  is  generally  filled  in  with  what  is 
known  as  the  egg-moulding,  very  sharply  and  deeply  under-cut. 

^ See  Fig.  10  for  details. 


Fig.  10.  {a)  Ionic  Entablatuhe  ; 

{h)  Ionic  Ease  (Asiatic  Type). 


46 


LIST  OF  IONIC  TEMPLES 


As  with  the 

Doric  temples,  we  give  here  a list 

of  the  princ 

remains  of  Ionic 

architecture  on  Greek  soil : — 

L— ATTICA. 

Athens, 

Old  Temple  on  Aero- 

Remains  of  Ionic  capitals  5(i0  b.c. 

polis. 

found. 

Temple  on  the  llissos. 

Tetrastyle  prostyle. 

About  470  B.c. 

I'e  m p 1 e o f A t h e n a Nike 

^ Tetrastyle  prostyle. 

About  450  B.c. 

Ph'echtheion, 

Abnormal, 

430-400  B.c. 

Propylaea, 

Six  inner  columns. 

437-432  B.c. 

II.— ARCADIA. 

Phigaleia, 

Temple  of  Apollo, 

Columns  of  Celia, 

430  B.c. 

Tegea, 

Temple  of  Athena  Alea 

, Doubtful, 

390-370  B.c. 

III.— ASIA  MINOR. 

Ephesus, 

Older  Temple  of 

About  5()0  B.c. 

Artemis, 

Sardis, 

Temple  of  Cybele, 

Octostyle, 

About  500  B.c. 

Xanthos, 

Nereid  Monument, 

Tetrastyle, 

About  400  B.c. 

Troad, 

Temple  of  Apollo 

Octostyle  pseudo-dipt.. 

400-350  B.c. 

Smintheus, 

Samos, 

Temple  of  Hera, 

Decastyle  dipteral. 

350-320  B.c. 

Magnesia, 

Temple  of  Artemis, 

Hexastyle  pseudo-dipt.. 

350-320  B.c. 

Teos, 

Temple  of  Dionysos, 

Hexastyle  pseudo-dipt.. 

350-320  B.c. 

Priene, 

Temple  of  Athena, 

Hexastyle, 

350-320  B.c. 

Halikarnassos, 

Mausoleum, 

350-340  B.c. 

Branchidae, 

Temple  of  Apollo 

Decastyle  dipteral. 

340  B.c. 

Milesios, 

Ephesus, 

Temple  of  Artemis, 

Octostyle, 

330-320  B.c. 

IV.- 

-ITALY. 

Locri, 

Old  Temple  of  Perse- 

Hexastyle, 

580-570  B.c. 

phone. 

Do. 

New  do. 

Heptastyle, 

500-480  B.c. 

Two  of  the  most  beautiful  examples  of  Ionic  architecture  are  the 
temple  of  Athena  Nike  (formerly  called  Wingless  Victory),  and  the 
Erechtheion  or  temple  of  Athena  Polias  and  Erechtheus,  both  on  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens/  The  former  is  the  earlier  of  the  two,  and  was 
probably  built  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  n.c.,  commemor- 
ating the  victories  of  the  Athenians  in  the  Persian  wars.  It  is  a very 
small  building,  with  room  for  little  besides  the  statue  of  the  goddess, 

^ See  IMates  xiv. , xv. 


47 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


but  is  exquisitely  proportioned ; it  consists  of  a cella  with  open  front 
and  four  columns  at  either  end.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Turks  in 
1687,  but  enough  remained  to  admit  of  its  reconstruction.  Some  of 
the  sculptured  friezes  were  carried  off  by  I^ord  Elgin,  and  are  now  in 
the  llritish  Museum  ; but  the  beautiful  figures  of  Victories  on  the 
stone  balustrade  in  front  of  the  temple,  dating  from  a later  period,  are 
preserved  in  the  adjoining  Acropolis  Museum. 

The  Erechtheion  represents  the  perfection  of  the  Ionic  style, 
though  its  form  is  unique.^  It  is  practically  a double  temple,  con- 
sisting of  a cella  divided  into  two  portions,  sacred  respectively  to 
Athena  Polias  and  Erechtheus,  with  an  eastern  portico  of  six  columns, 
and  two  large  porches,  each  with  six  columns,  on  the  north  and  south. 
The  latter  is  the  famous  porch  of  the  Caryatides,^  which  is  familiar  to 
Londoners  from  the  copy  of  it  attached  to  St.  Pancras  Church.  The 
six  columns,  placed  on  a high  plinth  or  stylobate,  are  in  the  form  of 
maidens  (the  Caryatides)  supporting  moulded  capitals  on  their  heads, 
on  which  rests  an  entablature.  One  of  these  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum,^  and  has  been  replaced  by  a terra-cotta  copy.  Round  the 
main  building  was  a frieze  in  white  marble  on  a black  marble  back- 
ground, and  the  entablature  throughout  is  richly  decorated  with 
various  patterns.  An  interesting  inscription  of  409  b.c.  gives  the 
details  of  the  decorative  work  of  the  temple  and  its  cost,  and  another 
of  the  same  date,  preserved  in  the  British  JMuseum,  shows  that  it  was 
then  still  unfinished.  Sir  Charles  Newton  says  of  the  former:  ‘It 
records,  item  by  item,  the  expenses  of  building  the  Erechtheion, 
and  . . . contains  a statement  of  the  sums  actually  paid  for  the 
sculptural  decorations,  with  the  names  of  the  artists  by  whom  they 
were  executed.’ 

Some  of  the  Ionic  buildings  of  Asia  Minor  were  of  great  renown  in 
antiquity,  and  two  of  them,  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus  and 
the  Mausoleum  at  Halikarnassos,  ranked  among  the  wonders  of  the 
world.  The  temples  of  Apollo  at  Miletus  and  Athena  at  Priene  were 
also  of  great  magnificence.  All  these,  as  the  list  shows,  are  later  in 
date  than  those  of  Athens,  and  belong  to  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth 
century;  but  the  remains  of  the  earlier  temple  at  Ephesus,  which  con- 
tained Croesus’  column  (p.  78)  were  also  in  this  style,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  remarkable  capital  from  this  temple  now  restored  at  the 
British  Museum.  A comparison  of  this  capital  (in  the  Archaic  Room 


^ See  plan  in  Fig.  8. 

2 So  called  from  a Greek  legend  of  the  city  of  Carya. 

48 


^ See  Plate  xxxviii. 


I’LAIE  XVI 


Till',  M.U’SOLKr.M,  IIAI.I  KAKXASSOS 
(ki-;s  1 1 >K,\  I luN  ii\'  I'l;  h:kskn) 


TEMPLES  IN  ASIA  MINOE 


of  the  Museum)  with  one  of  those  from  the  later  temple  in  the  Ephesus 
Room  will  clearly  show  the  difference  brought  about  in  this  style  in 
the  course  of  two  hundred  years.  Strictly  sj)eaking,  there  were  three 
temples  built  on  this  site,  the  first  by  Theodores  of  Samos  about  C50 
li.c.,  the  second  by  Chersiphron  and  Metagenes  (550-520  n.c. ),  and  the 
third  about  350  B.c.,  after  the  destruction  of  the  second  by  fire  on  the 
night  when  Alexander  the  Great  was  born. 

The  remarkable  feature  of  the  third  temple  was  the  arrangement  of 
the  columns  on  the  facade,  in  two  rows,  the  lower  row  coming  down 
on  to  the  steps  in  front ; they  stand  on  huge  square  bases  ornamented 
with  sculpture,  and  the  lowest  drums  of  the  columns  are  also  orna- 
mented with  sculptured  reliefs.  The  dimensions  of  the  temple  were 
342  by  163  feet,  or  at  the  base  of  the  steps,  418  by  240,  and  the 
columns  are  no  less  than  six  feet  in  diameter.  The  temple  of  Apollo 
at  Miletus  was  slightly  larger,  but  not  so  richly  decorated  ; it  was  built 
by  Paionios  of  Ephesus  about  350  b.c.  Roth  temples  are  now  entirely 
in  ruins,  but  considerable  remains  of  the  former  were  excavated  in 
1867-1872  by  Mr.  J.  T.  \Vood,  and  are  now  in  the  British  JNIuseum, 
where,  as  far  as  possible,  they  have  been  restored. 

The  Mausoleum  at  Halikarnassos,  as  is  well  known,  was  a monu- 
ment built  in  honour  of  Mausolos,  satrap  of  Caria,  by  his  wife 
Artemisia,  about  350  b.c.  The  architect’s  name  was  Pythis  or 
Pythios,  and  it  seems  to  have  remained  almost  perfect  until  the 
sixteenth  century.  It  was  excavated  by  Sir  Charles  Newton  in  1857, 
and  almost  all  the  existing  remains  are  in  the  British  JNIuseum. 

Although  a long  account  of  this  building  has  been  left  us  by  Pliny, 
and  so  much  of  its  architectural  detail  has  been  recovered,  it  has 
always  been  a subject  of  great  controversy,  and  its  exact  form  has  not 
so  far  been  definitely  ascertained.  Pliny’s  description  is  not  very  lucid, 
but  all  are  agreed  that  it  consisted  of  a square  colonnaded  edifice  on  a 
high  base  or  podium,  surmounted  by  a stepped  pyramid,  on  the  summit 
of  which  stood  a four- horse  chariot.  In  the  chariot  (or  according  to 
some  authorities,  in  the  lower  part  of  the  building)  stood  two  colossal 
figuies  of  Mausolos  (Plate  xr.viii.)  and  Artemisia  (or  a goddess) ; these 
have  been  well  preserved,  and  the  former  may  be  regarded  as  a slightly 
idealised  portrait  of  the  ruler  whom  the  building  commemorates.  The 
total  height  was  about  125  feet,  the  main  portion  measuring  180  feet 
each  way.  It  was  ornamented  with  three  sculptured  friezes,  two  of 
which  were  on  the  podium,  together  with  figures  of  lions  and  other 
sculptures.  The  details  of  workmanship  are  of  a higher  order  than  is 

49 


G.A.-4 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


the  case  with  most  Ionian  temples,  almost  rivalling  the  Parthenon. 
The  arrangement  of  the  columns  and  entablature  of  the  central  portion 
may  be  well  seen  from  a restoration  in  the  British  Museum.^ 

The  Corinthian  style  came  into  existence  about  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  century.  There  is  no  apparent  reason  for  the  name,  but  it 
may  have  been  given  on  account  of  the  luxuriant  and  highly  orna- 
mented character  of  the  capitals,  Corinth  being  proverbial  in  antiquity 
for  its  wealth  and  luxury.  In  general  arrangement  the  order  differs 
little  from  the  Ionic,  except  for  the  capitals,  which  are  divided  into 
three  tiers  of  equal  height,  each  tier  composed  of  small  volutes  {cauli- 
coli).  At  each  corner  a larger  one  supported  the  abacus,  which  was  in 
the  form  of  a concave-sided  square,  but  all  the  real  weight  rested  on 
the  centre.  Vitruvius  tells  us  tliat  the  idea  of  this  beautiful  capital 
was  suggested  to  the  sculptor  Kallimachos  by  the  sight  of  a basket  on 
which  a tile  had  been  placed,  underneath  which  an  acanthus  plant  had 
grown  out  of  the  basket.  But  this  style  was  never  much  used  in 
Greece,  and  was  more  popular  with  the  Romans. 

The  earliest  example  of  Corinthian  is  in  a single  column  at  Phiga- 
leia,  inside  the  temple,^  and  it  was  also  used  in  the  mixed  temple  at 
Tegea,  and  for  the  inner  row  of  columns  in  the  Tholos  at  Epidauros,  a 
beautiful  circular  building  of  the  fourth  century  connected  with  the 
local  cult  of  Asklepios.  But  the  finest  building  in  this  style  is  the 
Choragic  Monument  of  Lysikrates  in  the  Street  of  Tripods  at  Athens, 
just  under  the  Acropolis.^  It  was  intended  to  support  a prize  tripod 
won  in  a dramatic  contest,  in  which  Lysikrates  had  supplied  the 
chorus,  and  still  remains  almost  in  its  entirety.  It  is  a circular  struc- 
ture with  six  engaged  columns  round  it,  but  the  capitals  have  only  two 
rows  of  leaves,  showing  them  to  be  of  an  early  type.  On  the  archi- 
trave is  an  inscription  referring  to  the  circumstances  of  its  erection, 
from  which  the  date  can  be  ascertained  as  335  b.c.  Above  this  is  a 
frieze  on  which  is  sculptured  the  subject  of  Dionysos  turning  into 
dolphins  the  pirates  who  attacked  his  ship.  The  roof  of  the  dome 
imitated  overlapping  leaves  or  scales.  Lord  Byron  is  said  to  have  used 
this  building  as  a study. 

Near  to  this  monument  stand  some  columns  of  another,  but  much 
later  example  of  the  style,  the  magnificent  temple  of  Olympian  Zeus. 

1 The  restoration  given  in  Plate  xvi.  is  by  Professor  Petersen  of  Rome. 

2 This  is  disputed  by  some  authorities,  who  regard  it  as  a later  restoration.  See  Frazer, 

Pausanias,  iv.  p.  898.  ^ See  Plate  xvii. 

50 


FLA  TF.  Xril 


I UK  (HORAC.K'  -MOXI.t;\|  p XI'  ()[,'  |,\si  KRA  IKS,  ATHKN-S 


ri.A  'l ! .VI 


s\':i  II.IA’  ‘SOSAMOKI  .10 


THE  COEINTHIAN  STYLE 


It  was  begun  by  Peisistratos  about  530  b.c.,  but  not  continued  until 
174  B.c.  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  a Roman  named  Cossutius  being 
the  architect.  It  was  finally  completed  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  and 
was  an  octostyle  dipteral  building,  365  by  146  feet  in  area,  surrounded 
by  no  less  than  104  columns  in  all.  In  its  scale  and  decoration  it  must 
have  rivalled  the  great  temples  of  Asia  IMinor. 

With  regard  to  the  chronology  of  the  three  great  orders  of  Greek 
architecture,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  as  Professor  Freeman 
pointed  out,  they  did  not  succeed  each  other  chronologically  like  the 
various  developments  of  Gothic  architecture,  each  exclusively  repre- 
senting a certain  period.  As  we  have  seen,  all  three  orders  might  be 
employed  in  a single  building,  and  the  choice  of  one  or  the  other  was 
partly  a matter  of  mere  preference,  partly  the  result  of  local  usages,  as 
in  the  Ionic  style  of  Asia  JMinor.  Further,  we  must  remember  that 
Doric  was  the  architecture  of  Greece  ])ar  excellence^  as  well  as  of 
Magna  Graecia  and  Sicily ; Ionic  was  the  architecture  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  was  only  exotic  at  Athens,  non-existent  in  the  West^  until  Roman 
times.  Corinthian  architecture  is  really  Roman  rather  than  Greek, 
and  in  Hellenic  times  is  only  found  in  use  for  small  buildings  or 
portions  of  larger  ones ; the  same  applies  to  Ionic  in  Greece,  which 
only  occurs  on  anything  like  a large  scale  in  the  Erechtheion. 

The  buildings  which  have  been  discussed  in  this  brief  survey  of 
Greek  architecture  are  almost  exclusively  temples,  or  otherwise  asso- 
ciated with  religious  ceremonial  or  beliefs.  It  might  have  been 
possible,  did  space  permit,  to  give  some  account  of  others  which  claim 
equal  title  to  architectural  merit,  such  as  the  magnificent  theatres  of 
Athens,  Epidauros,  and  Megalopolis,  which  have  been  so  admirably 
preserved.^  Secondly,  there  are  the  remains  of  secular  buildings 
excavated  at  Olympia  and  Delphi : the  treasuries  of  the  Athenians 
and  other  states  or  cities,  which  though  small  were  often  adorned  with 
fine  sculptures ; the  stadia  and  other  erections  devoted  to  athletic 
pursuits  ; and  other  structures  of  less  importance.  There  are  also  such 
buildings  as  the  Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens,  and  the  great  council- 
hall  at  JMegalopolis,  known  as  the  Thersilion,  or  the  magnificent 
erections  of  Attalos  at  Pergamon,  including  the  altar  of  Zeus,  which  is 
described  in  another  chapter  (p.  I3I).  But  the  Greeks  did  not,  as  a 
rule,  lavish  their  supreme  efforts  on  their  secular  buildings  ; even  in  the 

^ The  only  exception  is  at  Locri  (see  p.  47). 

^ Plate  XVIII.  gives  a view  of  the  great  Dionysiac  theatre  under  the  Acropolis  of  Athens. 

51 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


Agorae,  or  central  meeting-places  of  their  cities,  they  aimed  at  no  more 
elaborate  effect  than  was  achieved  by  a simple  colonnade.  Their 
domestic  buildings  were  even  less  pretentious,  with  no  attempt  at 
outward  show,  and  remind  us  that  they  lived  an  out-door  life  for  the 
most  part.  Few  Greek  houses,  indeed,  have  been  preserved,  and  those 
which  have  been  unearthed — at  Athens  and  the  Peiraieus,  Delos  and 
Priene — are  of  a very  simple  character.^  The  only  one  known  of  any 
size  is  the  palace  at  Palatitza  in  INIacedonia,  a semi-barbaric  erection  of 
about  350  B.c.  The  plan  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  ordinary  Roman 
house. “ The  type  of  house  in  all  these  cases,  with  rooms  round  a 
courtyard,  agrees  more  or  less  with  the  description  of  a Greek  house 
given  by  Vitruvius.  But  the  temple  must  be  regarded  as  the  typical 
Greek  building,  both  for  its  architectural  arrangements  and  for  its 
associations  with  the  daily  life  of  the  people,  to  whom  their  religion 
was  of  such  all-embracing  importance. 

^ Demosthenes,  inveighing  against  the  self-aggrandisement  of  his  own  day,  exclaims:  ^Then 
indeed  public  life  was  lived  in  luxury  and  splendour,  and  no  man  vaunted  his  superiority  as  a 
private  citizen.  The  houses  of  Themistocles,  Miltiades,  and  other  celebrities  were  not  a whit 
finer  than  the  rest,  wdiereas  the  public  buildings  and  public  property  reached  a height  of  grandeur 
never  since  surpassed  ’ {In  Aristoci'.  207). 

2 See  Laloux,  Architecture  grecqiie,  p.  245. 


CHAPTER  IV 


GUEEK  SCULPTURE:  INTRODUCTORY 

Literary  records  of  Greek  Sculpture — Monumental  evidence — Lost  and  existing 
sculptures — Originals,  copies,  and  imitations — Materials  employed — Wood,  gold 
and  ivory,  and  marble — Models  and  tools — Polishing  and  colouring — Reliefs — 
Technical  processes  in  bronze. 

WE  have  seen  in  our  preliminary  chapter  what  an  important 
part  sculpture  played  in  the  history  of  Greek  art  and  it 
is  hoped  that  no  apology  will  be  needed  for  the  large 
proportion  of  space  that  is  devoted  to  it  in  the  present  work.  The 
history  of  Greek  Sculpture  is — in  a sense — the  history  of  Greek 
art,  including  as  it  does  the  various  forms  of  the  plastic  art  in  every 
material,  marble,  clay,  and  bronze.  Excluding  for  the  moment  coins 
and  engraved  gems,  it  is  obvious  that  nearly  every  product  of  Greek 
art  partakes  of  the  characteristics  of  either  Sculpture  or  Painting. 
The  former  includes  statues,  busts,  figurines,  and  relief-work  in  stone, 
metal,  or  clay ; the  latter,  frescoes  and  other  kinds  of  pictures,  painted 
vases,  and  minor  arts  in  which  the  graphic  element  is  pre-eminent, 
such  as  engraved  work  in  metal,  and  mosaics.  Seeing  then  that 
with  the  exception  of  the  painted  vases,  nearly  all  the  remains  of 
Greek  pictorial  art  have  perished,  whereas  we  possess  a fairly  com- 
plete connected  series  of  their  plastic  productions,  it  is  hardly  sur- 
prising that  the  treatment  of  this  latter  branch  of  art  should  demand 
such  a preponderance  of  space. 

In  this  introductory  chapter  to  the  subject  it  will  be  found 
convenient  to  treat  of  it  in  its  general  aspects,  dealing  with  such 
questions  as  the  sources  of  our  knowledge,  the  use  of  material  and 
technical  processes ; in  the  three  following  chapters  the  sculptors  and 
their  works  will  be  discussed  from  the  historical  point  of  view. 

Our  knowledge  of  Greek  Sculpture  is  derived  from  two  sources : 
literary  records  and  traditions,  and  existing  monuments.  Of  the 

53 


GEEEK  SCULPTURE 


former  there  are  first  of  all  works  on  the  principles  of  sculpture, 
histories  of  artists,  and  descriptions  of  works  of  art ; secondly,  allusions 
to  the  subject  in  writings  not  directly  concerned  therewith,  of  more 
or  less  scientific  value.  Unfortunately,  of  the  former  class  almost 
everything  has  perished,  and  all  that  we  do  possess  is  in  the  form 
of  late  compilations  of  the  time  of  the  Homan  Empire.  We  know, 
however,  that  the  sculptor  Polykleitos  wrote  a work  on  bodily  pro- 
portions which  he  termed  the  ‘ Canon,’  and  that  another  artist, 
Euphranor,  wrote  on  colouring  and  proportion ; he  was  both  sculptor 
and  painter.  About  300  n.c.  the  sculptor  Xenokrates  wrote  a treatise 
on  art,  historical  and  theoretical ; and  this,  though  now  lost,  formed 
the  basis  of  the  elder  Pliny’s  writings,  as  he  himself  tells  us.  The 
latter  writer  also  made  use  of  compilations  by  Antigonus  of  Carystus, 
Duris  of  Samos,  and  the  Roman  antiquary  Varro.  There  was  also 
Polemo  (about  200  b.c.),  who  gave  a full  description  of  the  temples 
of  Greece  and  their  contents.  Of  existing  writings  there  are  only 
the  books  dealing  Avith  art  (xxxiv.-xxxvi.)  of  Pliny’s  Natural  History 
and  the  Dcsaiption  of  Greece  by  Pausanias,  the  Baedeker  of  antiquity. 

As  Pliny  himself  admits,  by  giving  a list  of  his  authorities,  his 
Avork  is  only  a compilation  Avithout  professing  originality.  In  many 
ways  invaluable  to  us,  it  must  often  be  used  Avith  great  caution, 
OAving  to  his  obvious  ignorance  of  the  early  period  of  Greek  art  and 
his  evident  misunderstandings  of  his  sources.^  But  his  lists  of  artists 
and  their  works  in  marble  and  bronze,  and  some  of  his  technical 
information,  supply  us  Avith  a fund  of  information  for  which  we 
cannot  be  sufficiently  grateful.  Pausanias’  work  is  of  a different 

kind,  and  even  more  A^aluable.  Written  in  the  second  century  of 
our  era,  it  contains  a full  account  of  all  the  buildings  then  existing 
in  Greece  and  the  treasures  that  they  still  contained,  as  Avell  as  much 
miscellaneous  information.  He  Avas  an  enthusiast  for  antiquity,  and 
his  laudable  taste  for  the  archaic  caused  him  to  note  many  things 
that  from  a merely  artistic  point  of  view  Avould  naturally  have 
been  ignored. 

The  only  trustworthy  art-critic  of  antiquity  Avas  Lucian,  who 
had  been  trained  as  a sculptor,  and  was  therefore  qualified  to  pose 
as  an  expert;  but  his  allusions  to  Avorks  of  art  are  comparatively 
rare.  Some  of  his  criticisms,  hoAvever,  are  very  instructive.  Similar, 
if  less  trustworthy,  judgments  of  ancient  sculptors  are  found  in 
the  Avritings  of  Quintilian  and  Cicero,  and  information  of  a more 

^ A recent  German  writer  speaks  of  Pliny  as  a mere  ^ paste-and-scissors  ’ compiler. 

54 


EXISTING  REMAINS 

or  less  direct  kind  in  passages  from  Plutarch  and  other  less-known 
writers. 

Secondly,  there  is  the  monumental  evidence,  i.e,  that  afforded 
by  the  numerous  statues  and  reliefs  preserved  in  our  museums  and 
private  collections,  or,  in  the  case  of  architectural  sculptures,  still 
forming  part  of  the  ancient  buildings.  We  may  glean  from  the 
pages  of  Pausanias  some  idea  of  the  marvellous  wealth  of  sculpture 
which  even  in  his  day  adorned  Greek  temples  and  other  public 
buildings,  but  the  extent  to  which  this  art  was  employed  by  the 
Greeks  is  somewhat  difficult  to  realise  in  modern  days.  Not  only 
is  the  scope  of  plastic  art  so  much  restricted  at  the  present  day, 
but  the  actual  remains  that  we  do  possess  form  such  an  infinitesimally 
small  proportion  of  the  original  total.  Any  one  of  such  sites  as 
the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  Olympia,  or  Delphi  would,  if  preserved 
in  its  original  condition,  supply  us  with  an  amount  of  material  equal 
to  that  now  available  from  all  sources ; and  such  material  would, 
moreover,  consist  almost  entirely  of  the  original  masterpieces  which 
are  now  so  rare. 

Many  causes  contributed  to  the  disappearance  of  these  great 
collections.  The  process  of  disintegration  began  with  the  depredations 
of  the  Roman  conqueror  IMummius  in  b.c.  146,  when  Corinth  was 
sacked,  and  from  that  time  onwards  it  became  the  fashion  to  carry 
off  works  of  art  to  decorate  the  buildings  and  public  places  of  Rome. 
The  bronze  statues  recently  dredged  up  off  the  island  of  Kythera  (p.  136) 
are  thought  to  have  formed  part  of  the  loot  of  Sulla  in  83  b.c.,  the 
ship  containing  them  having  been  wrecked  on  its  homeward  voyage. 
Many  sculptures  have  also  been  dredged  up  from  the  bed  of  the 
Tiber  at  Rome.  When  Byzantium  subsequently  became  the  capital 
of  the  Roman  Empire  the  process  of  removal  was  renewed,  and 
even  such  treasures  as  the  statue  of  Athena  Parthenos  from  the 
Parthenon  were  conveyed  away  to  adorn  the  new  centre  of  civilisation. 
Then  came  the  period  of  barbarian  invasions,  which  combined  with 
the  utilitarian  tendencies  of  ignorant  nations  like  the  Turks  to 
destroy  all  such  works  as  could  be  turned  to  other  more  profitable 
uses.  Bronze  and  the  more  precious  metals  naturally  tempted  the 
spoiler  by  their  intrinsic  value,  and  marble  was,  and  has  been 
continuously  down  to  the  present  day,  seized  upon  whenever  it  was 
found  convenient  for  converting  into  mortar  or  building  material. 
To  the  latter  fact  indeed  it  has  often  owed  its  preservation,  especially 
in  the  case  of  stelae  (tombstones)  or  inscribed  bases,  which  were 

55 


GREEK  SCULPTURE 


by  their  form  well  suited  to  be  used  in  buildings.  Even  the  Greeks 
of  classical  times  were  not  guiltless  in  this  respect,  for  Thucydides^ 
tells  us  that  stelae  from  tombs  and  cut  stones  of  all  kinds  were 
used  for  the  building  of  the  Long  Walls  of  Athens  under  Themi- 
stocles. 

Of  the  remains  of  sculpture  existing  at  the  present  day  the  great 
majority  have  been  buried  either  deliberately  or  by  chance,  and 
brought  to  light  by  excavation.  The  magnificent  series  of  archaic 
works  yielded  by  the  excavations  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens  in 
1882-1889  had  all  been  buried  among  the  debris  caused  by  the  sack 
of  the  Persians  in  n.c.  480,  on  the  top  of  which  the  new  buildings 
of  the  Kimonian  and  Periclean  periods  were  erected.  This  was 
a fortunate  circumstance  in  more  than  one  respect,  not  only  as 
ensuring  their  preservation,  but  as  affording  a limit  for  their  date 
in  one  direction.  On  other  sites,  as  at  Olympia,  the  burial  of 
the  works  of  art  was  more  accidental,  and  due  to  natural  causes, 
such  as  overthrow  by  earthquakes  and  the  subsequent  covering-over 
with  soil  that  accumulated  year  by  year.  On  the  other  hand, 
buildings  like  the  Parthenon  and  Theseion  at  Athens,  and  some 
of  the  temples  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  have  stood  with  varying  fortune 
through  the  vicissitudes  of  centuries,  preserving  their  sculptured 
decoration  more  or  less  intact. 

Until  recent  years  the  majority  of  our  sculptures  had  been 
found  on  Italian  soil;  some  even,  like  the  Pasquino  head,  the  group 
of  horse-tamers  on  the  Monte  Cavallo  at  Rome,  and  the  bronze 
statue  of  Marcus  A.urelius  in  the  Capitol  had  always  been  preserved 
above  ground ; and  these  were  nearly  all  of  late  date,  or  only  copies 
of  original  works.  But  the  excavations  of  the  nineteenth  century 
have  added  enormously  to  our  material,  and  revolutionised  the 
knowledge  of  ancient  art  by  the  systematic  exploration  of  sites  in 
Greece  and  Asia  JMinor  and  the  disinterment  of  genuine  original 
masterpieces.  These  it  has  generally  been  possible  to  identify  from 
the  circumstances  of  their  discovery,  especially  in  the  case  of  archi- 
tectural sculpture  or  temple  statues,  which  have  been  described  by 
ancient  writers  such  as  Pausanias.  It  is,  for  instance,  due  to  him 
that  we  can  identify  with  absolute  certainty  two  of  the  greatest 
finds  of  recent  years,  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles  and  the  Nike  of 
Paionios,  as  well  as  tlie  sculptures  of  Olympia  and  Tegea. 

Most  of  these  works  are  now  collected  in  the  museums  of  Greece,  and 


5G 


1 i.  93. 


MODERN  RESEARCHES 

the  great  European  collections  are  mostly  made  up  of  sculptures  found 
in  Italy,  about  which  we  have  no  direct  information.  Some  indeed 
may  be  originals,  transported  from  Greece  in  Roman  times ; but 
the  great  majority  are  copies  or  imitations  of  well-known  works, 
which,  from  that  very  circumstance,  are  apt  to  mislead  us  if  we  endea- 
vour to  rehabilitate  from  them  the  masters  from  whose  creations 
they  are  derived.  For  instance,  some  artists,  like  Polykleitos  and 
Lysippos,  worked  chiefly  or  entirely  in  bronze,  but  were  largely 
copied  in  marble,  which  necessarily  entails  deviations  from  the 
appearance  of  the  originals.  Bronze  statues,  from  the  intrinsic  value 
of  the  material,  were  naturally  short-lived,  and  the  modern  pre- 
ponderance of  works  in  marble  does  not  of  course  in  any  way 
correspond  to  the  state  of  affairs  in  ancient  Greece. 

Another  point  which  has  to  be  taken  into  consideration  is  that 
many  of  these  statues  have  been  subjected  to  restoration,  chiefly 
by  Italian  artists,  and  these  restorations  are  not  always  obvious  at 
first  sight,  because  they  are  not  eonfined  to  supplying  missing  limbs 
or  features,  but  the  whole  surface  of  the  marble,  antique  or  modern, 
is  often  worked  over  in  a most  misleading  manner,  in  order  to 
obtain  a uniform  effect.  It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  this 
reprehensible  practice  has  been  discouraged. 

Ancient  works  of  sculpture  may  then  be  classified  under  three 
heads : Originals,  Copies,  and  Imitations.  The  first  class  includes 
statues  shown  by  satisfactory  evidence  to  be  from  the  hand  of  a 
master,  such  as  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles ; architectural  sculptures 
known  to  be  by  a master,  or  produced  under  his  immediate  direction, 
such  as  those  of  the  Parthenon  and  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  ; 
works  which  from  peculiarities  of  type  or  style  can  be  attributed 
to  some  particular  period  or  school,  such  as  those  of  the  great  altar 
at  Pergamon  ; and  minor  works,  such  as  the  Attic  sepulchral  reliefs, 
which,  though  the  work  of  humble  eraftsmen,  yet  reflect  the  artistic 
spirit  of  higher  creations. 

In  dealing  with  copies  the  idiosyncrasy  of  the  copyist  becomes 
a factor  to  be  reckoned  with,  and  also  the  difference  that  exists 
between  copies  made  at  a good  period  by  Greek  artists,  and  the 
mechanieal  ‘shop-wares’  of  Roman  origin.  In  the  former  there  is 
more  attempt  to  reproduce  the  spirit  and  general  feeling  of  the 
original  than  to  follow  details  with  accuracy  ; this  was  beyond  tlie 
powers  of  the  later  workman.  Yet  this  difference  is  not  without 
its  advantages,  for  if  the  earlier  copy  is  more  informing  in  regard 

57 


GREEK  SCULPTURE 

to  the  general  style  of  the  original  artist,  the  later  is  often  exceedingly 
valuable  to  us,  because  it  preserves  the  original  type  in  accurate 
detail.  Thus  the  Varvakeion  statuette  (p.  97),  which  is  artistically 
an  inferior  piece  of  work  of  very  late  date,  is  more  important  than 
any  other  copy  of  the  great  Athena  Parthenos  of  Pheidias,  because 
it  reproduces  details  which  are  absent  in  the  others. 

Imitations  as  distinguished  from  copies  are  works  which  reproduce 
the  general  character  of  some  particular  school  rather  than  single 
conceptions.  They  include  a whole  class  of  sculptures  which  are 
known  as  archaistic,  being  attempts  to  reproduce  the  character  of 
early  works  Avhich  attracted  by  their  delicacy  and  refinement  in  the 
same  way  that  early  Italian  painting  attracted  the  Pre-Raphaelites 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Having  at  first  sight  the  appearance 
of  genuine  archaic  products,  these  statues  may  usually  be  detected 
by  some  misunderstanding  or  exaggeration  of  detail.  It  was  a 
comparatively  easy  matter  for  a sculptor  to  reproduce  the  zigzag 
folds  of  the  conventional  archaic  draperies,  but  such  small  details 
as  the  typical  archaic  treatment  of  the  eye  were  liable  to  escape 
him.  The  archaising  tendency  was  one  always  present  in  Greek 
art  from  quite  early  times,  but  for  a long  time  it  was  confined  to 
the  minor  branches,  such  as  terra-cotta  statuettes,  or  certain  classes 
of  vases  and  coins,  the  reason  in  these  cases  being  exclusively  a 
religious  one.  So,  too,  purely  decorative  sculpture  often  retains  a 
wholly  conventional  character. 

A valuable  source  of  information  for  the  history  of  sculpture 
is  often  provided  by  inscriptions,  such  as  artists’  signatures.  Of 
these  a considerable  number  have  been  preserved,  and  they  are  useful 
for  comparison  with  literary  records  of  names.  It  has  been  noted 
that  in  the  earliest  and  latest  periods  the  names  derived  from  inscrip- 
tions do  not  usually  correspond  with  the  recorded  names ; but  in 
the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  the  coincidence  is  fairly  close.  Artists’ 
signatures  were  almost  always  placed  on  the  bases,  not  on  the 
statues  themselves,  so  that  it  is  not  often  possible  to  connect  them 
with  existing  works,  and  many  of  the  reputed  connections  have  been 
doubted  at  different  times,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Nike  of  Archermos 
(p.  75)  and  the  Aphrodite  of  JMelos  (p.  134).  There  are,  however, 
descriptive  inscriptions,  like  that  found  on  the  base  of  the  Nike 
of  Paionios  at  Olympia,  which  are  important  as  recording  dates 
and  circumstances  of  erection  as  well  as  artists’  names. 

Lastly,  there  is  the  evidence  of  minor  works  of  art.  In  coins 
58 


MATERIALS  FOR  SCULPTURE 


and  gems,  in  bronze  statuettes,  and  more  rarely  in  terra-cotta  figures 
and  on  painted  vases,  we  find  many  undoubted  reproductions  of 
well-known  works,  often  indeed  rough  and  on  a diminutive  scale, 
but  still  most  valuable.  Our  knowledge  of  the  great  Zeus  of 
Pheidias  at  Olympia  is  largely  derived  from  a reproduction  of  the 
type  on  the  coins  of  Elis;  and  in  other  cases  such  works  help 
to  identify  those  actually  preserved. 

The  materials  employed  by  the  Greeks  for  their  statuary  were 
practically  three  in  number : wood,  marble,  and  bronze.  Small  statu- 
ettes were  occasionally  made  in  silver  or  gold,  and  figures  in  terra-cotta, 
faience,  and  the  like,  also  come  under  the  heading  of  sculpture. 
But  small  bronzes  and  terra-cottas  are  more  fittingly  dealt  with  as 
separate  subjects,  and  in  the  chapters  devoted  to  the  minor  branches 
of  art  some  account  of  the  technical  processes  employed  and  cognate 
questions  will  be  found ; in  the  present  section  we  propose  to  deal 
only  with  the  higher  forms  of  plastic  art. 

That  wood  was  a common  material  for  statues  in  primitive  times 
is  attested  in  many  ways,^  although  we  have  of  course  no  wooden 
statues  remaining  from  classic  sites.  It  was  naturally  adopted  as  an 
easily- obtained  and  easily -worked  material.  Pausanias  frequently 
mentions  early  statues  of  wood ; and  if  the  famous  wooden  horse  of 
Troy  is  not  to  be  regarded  in  a serious  light,  there  is,  at  any  rate,  the 
carved  cedar- wood  chest  of  Kypselos  (see  p.  24),  with  its  series  of 
sculptured  reliefs  inlaid  with  gold  and  ivory,  'the  word  used  for 
early  cult-images  in  any  material  is  ocoanon,  which  is  derived  from  a 
word  meaning  ‘to  hew,’  and  the  form  which  some  of  the  existing 
early  specimens  of  sculpture  take,  the  body  of  the  figure  resembling 
a roughly-hewn  tree-trunk,  also  indicates  the  original  use  of  this 
material. “ In  later  times  wood  continued  to  be  used,  even  for  the 
finest  statues,  either  with  the  addition  of  marble  for  the  nude  portions, 
such  as  face,  hands,  or  feet,  or  with  these  parts  carved  in  ivory,  the 
wood  being  overlaid  with  gold  plating  for  the  drapery.  In  the  former 
case  the  statues  were  called  ‘acrolithic’  (with  stone  extremities),  in 
the  latter  ‘ chryselephantine  ’ (of  gold  and  ivory).  The  famous  statue 
of  Athena  by  Pheidias  was  made  in  the  latter  method,  as  was  also 
that  of  Zeus  at  Olympia.  Some  useful  information  about  the  tech- 
nique of  these  statues  may  be  gathered  from  the  account  given  of  a 

^ Egyptian  stiitiies  in  wood  have  been  found  reaching  back  as  far  as  the  Fourth  Dynasty 
(3700  n.c.).  ^ Cf.,  for  instance,  the  Samos  statue,  Plate  xix. 

59 


GREEK  SCULPTURE 


statue  of  Zeus  at  Megara  designed  by  Theokosmos,  but  never  finished 
owing  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  in  b.c.  431.  The 
head  only  was  completed  in  gold  and  ivory,  and  the  rest  was  finished 
off  in  clay  and  plaster;  but  the  wooden  framework  intended  for  the 
complete  statue,  to  be  covered  with  gold  and  ivory,  was  also  preserved. 
The  clay  and  plaster  substitute  was  probably  tlie  model  originally 
made  for  the  whole  work.^ 

As  regards  technical  methods  in  wood  we  have  not  much  in- 

O 

formation.  The  later  developments  seem  to  have  been  extremely 
complicated  affairs,  and  the  colossal  size  of  the  great  statues,  such  as 
those  just  mentioned,  implies  an  elaborate  construction  in  the  form  of 
a skeleton  framework  to  support  the  great  weight  of  the  limbs  and 
attributes.  They  appear  to  have  been  made  from  full-sized  models  in 
clay. 

Statues  in  stone  were  generally,  though  not  exclusively,  of  marble. 
In  Cyprus,  at  Naukratis  in  Egypt,  and  elsewhere  where  marble  was 
not  available,  the  local  limestone  or  alabaster  was  usually  preferred. 
At  Athens  the  primitive  sculptures  found  on  the  Acropolis  are  all  of 
a local  y;oms-stone,  which  was  also  much  used  for  buildings.  But  the 
mainland  and  islands  of  Greece  were  extraordinarily  rich  in  marbles  of 
a very  superior  kind,  which  were  far  more  beautiful  and  effective  in 
sculpture  than  any  of  the  Italian  marbles  used  in  Roman  times  and  in 
modern  days.  It  is  only  when  we  see  such  a statue  as  the  Hermes  of 
I^raxiteles  or  the  Aphrodite  of  IMelos,  or  even  when  we  stand  before 
the  less  fortunate  Elgin  marbles  in  the  murky  atmosphere  of  Blooms- 
bury that  we  can  gain  a satisfactory  idea  of  the  superiority  of  Greek 
marble  with  its  exquisite  intonations  of  light  and  shade,  and  soft  warm 
colouring,  as  compared  with  the  cold  unvarying  whiteness  of  that 
obtained  from  the  quarries  of  Luna  and  Carrara. 

The  most  beautiful  Greek  marble  was  the  Parian,  from  the  quarries 
of  the  island  of  Paros ; in  earlier  times  it  had  a formidable  rival  in 
that  of  its  neighbour  Naxos,  but  it  continued  the  favourite  for  many 
centuries.  At  Athens  there  were  two  local  varieties,  the  bluish  marble 
of  Hymettus,  only  used  in  earlier  times,  and  the  marble  of  Pentelicus, 
which  first  began  to  be  used  in  the  fifth  century.  The  latter,  which 
assumes  an  exquisite  golden  hue  (resulting  from  the  presence  of  iron), 
was  used  for  the  Parthenon,  and,  in  fact,  almost  invariably  by  Attic 
sculptors.  But  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles  is  in  Parian.  All  these 
marbles  were  more  or  less  white,  but  black  was  occasionally  used,  as  in 

^ See  Gardner,  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  pp.  ]8,  307  ; Pausanias,  i.  40,  4. 

GO 


THE  W0RKINC4  OF  MARBLE 


the  frieze  of  the  Erechtheion  ; it  was  not  until  Roman  times  that  the 
fashion  arose  of  working  in  richly-coloured  marbles  like  those  of  North 
Africa. 

The  methods  for  working  marble  for  statues  are  best  illustrated,  as 
Professor  Ernest  Gardner  has  shown, ^ by  a series  of  unfinished  works 
in  the  museum  at  Athens.  One  of  these  has  been  merely  rough-hewn 
with  a pointed  tool,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  square  shape,  showing 
that  the  sculp)tor  has  set  to  work  by  sketching  out  the  front  and  side 
views  of  the  figure  on  a block  and  proceeded  to  cut  them  through. 
To  this,  as  Professor  Gardner  points  out,  is  due  the  square  appearance 
of  many  archaic  statues,  such  as  the  primitive  ‘Apollo’  types  (p.  7G), 
though  it  may  also  be  partly  the  result  of  convention  or  of  want  of 
confidence  which  ])re vented  the  artist  from  altering  the  original  square 
form  of  the  block.  In  the  other  statues,  which  are  of  later  date,  there 
are  indications  of  the  processes  and  tools  employed — notably,  that  the 
artist  worked  free-hand,  without  the  use  of  pointing,  trusting  entirely 
to  his  eye  to  reproduce  the  clay  model  before  him.  It  is  possible  to 
trace  out  all  the  stages  from  the  first  roughing  out  of  the  general  out- 
line, till,  by  means  of  various  tools  and  increasing  care  in  the  workings 
the  final  form  is  attained. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  use  of  models  was  invariable  in 
antiquity.  The  modern  sculptor,  of  course,  always  employs  a careful 
model,  and  even  Michael  Angelo’s  attempts  to  dispense  with  one  were 
not  unattended  with  risk.  But  it  is  remarked  as  a peculiarity  of  the 
sculptor  Pasiteles,  who  lived  in  the  first  century  b.c.,  that  he  always 
used  a model. ^ Pasiteles  was  originally  a ropevrijs,  or  chaser  in  silver, 
for  which  purpose  he  was  obliged  to  use  models  ; hence  the  practice 
would  be  a familiar  one  to  him.^  The  avoidance  of  models  is  only 
partially  accounted  for  by  the  great  skill  and  constant  practice  of  the 
ancient  sculptors  ; but  it  may  also  be  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  they 
did  not  necessarily,  like  modern  artists,  carve  their  figures  out  of 
one  piece.  Hence  there  was  less  risk  of  mistake  in  the  preliminary 
carving  out  of  the  statue.  JModels,  when  used,  were  of  clay,  and  were 
known  as  jji^oplasmata.  They  were  either  made  by  hand  or  on  a 
wooden  core  {kanabos)  which  was  formed  by  two  rods  in  the  shape  of 
a cross,  whence  the  Latin  word  was  criici\ 

From  this  clay  model  a mould  was  made,  and  from  that  a plaster 
cast ; and  then  came  the  process  known  as  ‘ pointing.’  The  ancient 

^ Join'll.  Ilellen.  Stud.,  xi.  p.  120  fF.  - Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  xxxv.  15(>,  and  cf.  ihid.,  150. 

^ See  WickholF,  Roman  Art  (Eng.  edn.),  p.  42  ; Brit.  Mas.  Cat.  of  Terra-cottas,  p.  xxv. 

GI 


GREEK  SCULPTURE 


method  seems  to  have  been  to  take  a number  of  conspicuous  points  of 
the  anatomy  and  mark  them  with  nails  on  the  block  ; the  drill  was 
then  used  at  these  points  and  the  intervening  substance  gradually 
cleared  away,  the  points  being  increased  in  number  as  the  work 
advanced,  until  the  form  of  the  model  was  attained.  The  whole  pro- 
ceeding is  thus  seen  to  have  been  purely  mechanical.  The  traces  of 
the  points,  or  punteUi,  may  sometimes  be  observed  in  statues,  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  colossal  heads  from  the  Monte  Cavallo  at  Rome,  in  a 
copy  of  the  Diskobolos,  and  in  a figure  of  a barbarian  in  the  Lateral! 
M useum.^  But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  such  evidence  as  we 
possess  on  the  use  of  models  by  ancient  sculptors  belongs  to  the  Graeco- 
Roman  period. 

Tlie  he  wing-out  from  the  rough  was  achieved  by  various  kinds  of 
chisels ; modern  sculptors  use  about  a dozen,  and  the  forms  of  those 
used  in  anticpiity  were  probably  not  dissimilar,  except,  of  course,  that 
they  were  not  of  steel.  For  the  rougher  work  a sharj)  chipping 
instrument  was  used,  either  a punch  or  a pointed  hammer;  and  the 
final  stages  of  polishing  the  surface  were  effected  with  the  file  and 
also  with  sand.  In  some  archaic  statues  there  is  evidence  of  the  use 
of  the  saw  and  the  drill  for  the  folds  of  drapery.  The  latter  instru- 
ment, according  to  Pausanias,  was  invented  by  Kallimachos  at  the  end 
of  the  fifth  century  ; but  there  is  undoubted  evidence  of  its  earlier  use, 
not  only  in  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  but  in  the  pediments  of 
Aegina  and  Olympia.  It  must  therefore  be  assumed  that  Kallimachos 
either  improved  the  tool  or  used  it  more  extensively  for  under-cutting. 
Ancient  writers  constantly  employ  the  phrase  ‘ invented  ’ to  denote 
that  the  artist  improved  or  perfected  some  process.  In  Roman  times 
it  was  very  extensively  used,  but  the  best  Greek  sculptors  seem  to 
have  deliberately  concealed  the  traces  of  it  in  their  work. 

The  simplest  method  of  polishing  the  surface  of  the  marble  was 
with  the  chisel  throughout,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Parthenon  sculptures. 
In  the  fourth  and  third  centuries  the  file  was  more  generally  employed, 
especially  over  large  surfaces  such  as  drapery,  and  by  this  means 
contrasts  were  obtained  between  the  surface  of  the  drapery  and  that  of 
the  flesh,  as  may  be  noted  in  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles.  The  method 
known  as  politura,  which  began  in  the  third  century  and  increased 
rapidly  thenceforward,  consisted  in  the  use  of  sand  or  pounded  pumice 
or  pof'os-stone  ; corundum  or  emery  was  also  employed,  just  as  it  was 

^ Bliimner,  Technologie,  iii.  p.  191  ; see  Gardner,  Handbook  of  G?'eek  Sculpture,  p.  83. 

2 Pliny,  Hist.  Hat.,  xxxvi.  53. 

G2 


USE  OF  COLOUR  FOR  STATUES 


for  gems.  In  Roman  times  the  polishing  was  brought  to  such  a pitch 
that  figures  sometimes  presented  almost  the  appearance  of  porcelain, 
the  character  of  the  marble  surface  being  quite  lost. 

An  interesting  question  in  regard  to  ancient  statues  is,  to  what 
extent  was  colour  employed  to  enhance  their  appearance  ? With  all 
his  undoubted  love  of  colour  and  his  instinctive  feeling  that  it  was 
in  many  cases  absolutely  required  to  soften  the  effect  of  white  marble 
against  the  brilliant  sky  of  a southern  climate,  the  Greek  could  yet 
exercise  great  restraint  in  this  respect.  In  the  experimental  stage 
of  sculpture  this  was  not  altogether  the  case ; the  rude  stone  archi- 
tectural sculptures  from  the  Acropolis  of  Athens  are  gaudily  and 
crudely  coloured,  without  even  an  attempt  at  reproducing  nature,  hair 
and  beards  and  the  skins  of  animals  being  coloured  a bright  blue, 
while  green  and  various  shades  of  red  were  also  employed.  In  terra- 
cotta figures  again  bright  colouring  was  the  general  rule  at  all  periods, 
especially  in  the  finest  specimens  from  Tanagra  ; the  hair  is  red,  the 
nude  parts  flesh-colour  or  white,  and  the  drapery  bright  pink  or  blue. 

But  in  marble  figures  we  do  not  find  any  traces  of  this  tendency. 
It  was  no  doubt  felt  that  the  tint  of  the  marble,  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  not  the  cold  glistening  white  to  which  we  are  now  accus- 
tomed, was  amply  sufficient  to  reproduce  the  flesh-tints  of  women, 
if  not  of  men ; it  answered  in  fact  to  the  white  slip  used  in  the  terra- 
cottas (see  p.  191).  In  the  case  of  men  the  difficulty  is  solved  partly 
by  the  fact  that  male  statues — especially  those  of  nude  athletes — 
were  generally  in  bronze,  the  appearance  of  which  metal  may  have 
been  thought  more  appropriate  to  the  swarthy  sun-tanned  hue  of  a 
constantly-exposed  body.  At  all  events  the  exquisite  texture  and 
delicate  tones  of  the  Greek  marbles  were  recognised  as  amply  sufficient 
for  the  adequate  rendering  of  the  human  form. 

Was  there,  then,  no  system  of  colouring  employed  in  marble 
statues?  To  meet  this  question  with  a direct  negative  would  be 
absurd,  seeing  that  we  undoubtedly  possess  statues  or  heads  with 
remains  of  colouring  upon  them  ; but  these  do  not  of  course  prove 
the  rule.  An  ideal  head  in  the  British  IMuseum,  found  at  Rome, 
and  perhaps  representing  Aphrodite,  is  remarkable  for  the  extent 
to  which  it  retains  traces  of  the  original  colouring.  Ihe  hair  Avas 
coloured  yellow,  and  the  eyebrows,  lashes,  and  pupils  of  the  e)  es  black, 
the  surface  of  the  flesh  being  covered  with  a coating  of  light  pink. 
Again,  a statue  of  Aphrodite  was  found  at  Pompeii  with  an  imitation 

1 Brit.  Mus.  Cat.  of  Sculpture,  iii.  p.  3G,  No.  1597. 

C3 


C4REEK  SCULPTURE 


of  an  archaic  idol  standing  by  her  side,^  in  which  the  drapery  is 
coloured  throughout ; and  a more  delicate  tint  can  be  traced  on  the 
drapery  of  tlie  goddess  lierself.  As  regards  the  archaic  figure  the 
choice  of  colour  was  no  doubt  deliberate ; the  female  figures  from 
the  Acropolis  of  Athens  (p.  81)  retain  amj)le  traces  of  most  vivid 
colouring,  and  tlie  sculptor  is  here  endeavouring  to  reproduce  a similar 
figure.  The  more  delicate  colouring  of  the  Aphrodite  may  be 
explained  in  another  way. 

The  architect  Vitruvius^  and  his  follower  Pliny  speak  of  a process 
applied  to  the  nude  parts  of  statues,  called  by  the  Greeks  ganosis, 
which  implied  a general  treatment  of  the  surface,  not  merely  the 
enhancing  of  details.  But  it  was  not  of  a lasting  character,  and  hence 
it  has  seldom  left  traces  on  existing  works,  except  so  far  as  it  is  possible 
to  note  a difference  of  surbice  on  the  nude  parts  of  statues  which  have 
not  suffered  from  restoration.  It  was  done  by  means  of  white  wax 
mingled  with  oil  and  applied  with  a brush  when  heated,  the  process 
being  analogous  to  that  of  encaustic  painting  (see  p.  142).  When 
the  wax  was  rubbed  in,  the  marble  was  carefully  polished.  The  object 
of  the  process  seems  to  have  been  simply  to  soften  any  glaring  effect 
of  whiteness  without  obscuring  the  texture  of  the  marble.  At  the 
same  time  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  no  evidence  for 
the  existence  of  this  process  before  Roman  times ; we  can  only  surmise 
that  something  of  the  kind  was  customary. 

Another  recorded  process  is  that  of  circumUtio,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  emphasise  details  by  colouring.  This  we  may  recognise,  for 
example,  in  the  Acropolis  statues  just  mentioned,  and  although  Ave 
do  not  know  its  Greek  name,  we  may  suppose  that  it  was  in  frequent 
use  in  Greece.  It  would  find  analogies  both  in  the  terra-cotta  figures 
and  in  the  use  of  colour  in  architecture  for  patterns  and  mouldings. 
In  the  Acropolis  statues  the  nude  parts  and  the  main  masses  of 
drapery  are  left  untouched,  but  the  hair  and  lips  are  painted  red, 
the  eyes  marked  in  black,  and  the  borders  of  the  drapery  are  also 
very  richly  coloured. 

Gilding  was  frequently  applied  to  ancient  statues,  but  more  often 
to  bronze  than  to  marble ; even  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles  retained 
traces  of  gilding,  as  also  of  red  colour,  on  the  remaining  sandal  that 
was  found.  Inscriptions  exist  which  imply  that  such  coats  of  gilding 
required  renewing  from  time  to  time. 

In  sculptures  in  relief,  especially  in  architectural  works,  colour 

1 Baumeister,  Doikmu/er,  iii.  p.  1344,  pi.  47.  ^ vii.  9,  3. 

G4 


GREEK  SCULPTURE  IN  RELIEF 


and  ornament  were  much  more  freely  applied  than  in  statuary  in  the 
round.  The  background  usually  seems  to  have  been  painted  red  or 
blue,  and  sometimes  the  whole  of  the  figures  were  coloured,^  some- 
times only  details  that  required  emphasising.  For  the  latter  purpose 
gilding  was  often  in  request,  and  many  details  which  could  not  con- 
veniently be  reproduced  in  marble,  such  as  sceptres  or  harness,  were 
made  of  bronze,  which  would  probably  be  gilded.  On  the  whole,  the 
principles  adhered  to  in  the  colouring  of  architectural  reliefs  appear 
to  have  been  similar  to  those  which  governed  the  decoration  of  the 
purely  architectural  members ; broad  surfaces,  and  principal  members 
being  left  in  natural  colour,  mouldings  and  details  picked  out  in 
colour.  This  is  attested,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  the  Aegina 
pediments  (p.  86). 

In  regard  to  Greek  reliefs,  it  may  be  also  pointed  out  here  that 
these  exhibit  an  important  difference  from  modern  work,  in  which 
the  level  of  the  background  is  constant,  but  the  height  of  the  relief 
varies.  In  Greek  work,  on  the  contrary,  the  depth  of  the  background 
varies,  but  the  highest  points  of  the  relief  are  all  in  one  plane.  It 
is  probable  that  this  principle  is  a reflection  of  the  Egyptian  system 
of  countersunk  relief,  which  undoubtedly  at  one  time  influenced  Greek 
sculpture.  Hence  the  technique  also  differed  from  that  of  modern 
times ; whereas  now  a clay  model  is  employed  on  a ground  already 
prepared,  ancient  reliefs  were  cut  straight  out  of  the  stone,  the  ground 
being  chosen  by  the  sculptor,  and  no  model  was  required,  though  he 
may  have  had  a drawing  to  work  from.  The  contours  were  outlined 
with  the  chisel  and  cut  out  to  the  depth  required. 

The  technical  processes  emyloyed  in  the  working  of  bronze  are 
equally  important  for  our  purpose,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  we  have 
so  few  bronze  statues  remaining  of  sufficient  size  to  rank  as  genuine 
sculptures.  But  several  of  the  most  famous  artists,  such  as  Myron 
and  Lysippos,  worked  almost  entirely  in  bronze,  although  the  copies 
of  their  works  that  we  possess  are  in  marble,  and  a knowledge  of 
the  Greek  methods  of  working  in  tins  material  is  absolutely  essential 
to  a complete  understanding  of  Greek  sculpture. 

Bronze-working  was  perfected  by  the  Greeks  at  a very  early 
period,  probably  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  when 
hollow-casting  was  introduced ; previous  to  this  time  statues  were 
either  cast  solid,  or  made  by  covering  a wooden  core  with  plates  of 
bronze  riveted  together  (in  some  cases  with  gold).  The  latter  process 

^ As  in  the  early  Acropolis  pediments  at  Athens  mentioned  above. 

65 


G.  A.— 5 


GREEK  SCULPTURE 


was  known  as  sphyi'claton,  meaning  ‘ beaten  with  the  hammer,’  and  we 
have  descriptions  of  several  early  statues  which  were  made  in  this 
fashion  or  ‘ clothed  ’ in  bronze,  to  use  the  metaphorical  term  employed 
by  ancient  writers.  No  doubt  tlie  idea  arose  from  the  use  of  these 
bronze  plates  to  represent  drapery  when  it  was  first  considered  desir- 
able to  cover  the  nakedness  of  the  wooden  ocoana. 

Solid-casting  was  universally  employed  in  primitive  times,  and 
its  inconvenience  was  the  less  felt  in  that  no  large  works  in  this 
material  were  as  yet  attempted  ; it  was  in  fact  always  retained  for 
small  objects,  in  the  case  of  which  its  disadvantages  were  less  obvious. 
The  process  was  derived  from  Egypt,  where  it  was  known  as  early 
as  the  fifth  and  sixth  dynasties  (about  3500-3100  b.c.).  But  it  is 
evident  that  the  waste  of  valuable  material  and  the  inconvenient 
weight  of  such  figures  must  have  soon  led  to  new  developments. 

The  attribution  of  the  invention  of  hollow-casting  to  Rhoikos  and 
Theodoros  of  Samos  about  the  end  of  the  seventh  century  b.c.  (see 
below,  p.  74),  may  not  be  without  a germ  of  truth.  They  probably 
learned  the  art  in  Egypt  and  introduced  it  into  the  Peloponnese, 
where  they  founded  schools.  Pausanias  mentions  a statue  of  Night 
at  Ephesus  by  Rhoikos  as  the  oldest  hollow-cast  statue.  It  is  also 
recorded  that  they  were  the  first  to  utilise  clay  figures  as  models  for 
bronze  statues.  This  method  of  casting  statues  from  a clay  model  is 
known  now-a-days  as  the  ewe  pei'clue  process. 

The  eire  perdue  method  universally  employed  for  Greek  sculpture 
in  bronze  from  this  time  onwards  was  in  the  main,  as  far  as  is  known, 
identical  with  that  in  use  at  the  present  day.  A very  vivid  and 
instructive  account  of  this  method  of  casting  statues  is  given  by 
Benvenuto  Cellini  in  his  autobiography,^  in  describing  the  making  of 
his  Perseus.  The  name  refers  to  the  manner  in  which  the  wax  coating 
of  the  model  was  disposed  of  and  replaced  by  the  bronze,  as  an  epigram 
in  the  Greek  Anthology  puts  it:  ‘ Ikaros,  wax  wrought  thy  destruc- 
tion ; but  now  it  is  by  means  of  wax  that  the  sculptor  has  restored 
to  thee  thy  form.’ 

The  first  proceeding  is  to  make  a clay  or  plaster  model,  roughly 
reproducing  the  whole  conception,  but  on  a slightly  smaller  scale. 
This  model  was  built  on  a skeleton  of  iron,  with  a core  of  soft  clay 
carefully  beaten  up  and  mixed  with  pounded  pottery.  Over  the 
model  was  laid  a thin  coating  of  wax  in  sufficient  thickness  to  give  a 
perfect  modelling  of  the  future  statue,  the  smaller  details  being 

* Transl.  by  J.  A.  Symoiids  (189G),  p.  360  ff. 

G6 


CASTING  IN  BRONZE 


touched  up  with  tools  of  wood,  ivory,  or  bone.  The  wax  was  pierced 
at  many  points  with  bronze  rods  of  square  section,  which  were  left 
projecting  to  some  distance.  In  other  places  holes  were  left,  and 
small  tubes  inserted.  The  production  of  the  outer  mould  required 
very  great  care,  as  it  had  to  stand  the  action  of  fire.  It  was  made  of 
pottery  pounded  extremely  fine  and  mixed  with  clay  and  water  to  the 
consistency  of  cream,  which  mixture  was  applied  in  several  coats  or 


Fig.  11.  Bronze  Foundry.  From  a Vase  at  Berlin. 


‘ slips  ’ over  the  inner  mould  till  it  was  reduced  to  a shapeless  lump. 
It  was  then  bound  round  with  hoops  of  bronze  or  iron,  and  was  gently 
lowered  to  a horizontal  position  and  tilted  up  over  the  furnace,  or 
lowered  head  downwards  into  a pit  with  a fire  at  the  bottom. 

The  inner  surface  of  the  mould  had  now  received  the  impress  of 
the  modelling,  and  the  wax  could  be  removed  by  means  of  the  tubes 
inserted,  while  the  bronze  rods  held  the  core  firmly  in  place.  A hole 
was  made  in  each  foot  of  the  statue,  and  molten  bronze  was  poured 
in  in  place  of  the  wax  which  had  been  extracted  by  the  heat.  It  was 

C7 


GREEK  SCULPTURE 


a matter  of  some  difficulty  to  make  the  metal  run  into  all  the  cavities, 
owing  to  its  liability  to  cool  rapidly,  and  fires  would  have  to  be 
constantly  kept  up  at  a great  heat.  The  statue  was  now  left  to 
cool  for  some  days,  at  the  end  of  which  the  outer  mould  was  carefully 
chipped  off,  and  the  ends  of  the  bronze  rods  were  cut  smooth.  The 
core  was  extracted  by  means  of  iron  rakes  through  the  sole  of  the 
foot,  being  shaken  out  in  little  bits.  Cracks  or  raised  lines  caused  by 
defects  in  the  mould,  or  ‘ honey-combing  ’ caused  by  air-bubbles,  had 
to  be  carefully  made  good,  and  the  hair  also  had  often  to  be  touched 
up.  The  surface  was  then  prepared  by  colouring,  lacquering,  or 
gilding.  The  great  advantage  of  this  method  over  work  in  marble  is 
that  the  result  gives  the  direct  rapid  work  of  the  artist  in  wax,  instead 
of  the  laborious  accomplishment  of  his  conception. 

This  account  is  that  of  the  modern  process,  but  it  is  in  the  main 
identical  with  the  ancient  method,  so  far  as  it  is  known.  Literary 
evidence  is,  however,  somewhat  scanty  on  this  point.  But  some  very 
valuable  evidence  is  supplied  by  a vase-painting  in  the  Berlin  Museum, 
of  about  480  B.c.,  representing  a bronze  foundry  with  statues  in  process 
of  completion  (Fig.  11).  It  is  in  fact  more  instructive  than  any  amount 
of  description.  One  of  the  chief  points  on  which  it  throws  a light  is 
that  casting  appears  to  have  been  generally  done  in  separate  pieces, 
the  parts  being  afterwards  welded  together;  the  head  of  one  statue, 
out  of  which  the  core  is  being  raked,  lies  on  the  ground  before  it, 
while  a foot  and  a hand  and  some  heads  are  suspended  from  the  wall 
of  the  foundry.  Another  statue  is  already  completed,  and  two  men 
are  engaged  in  giving  the  finishing  touches  to  the  surface. 

The  ancients  liad  many  devices  for  embellishing  the  surface  and 
enhancing  the  effect  of  their  bronze  statues.  INIuch  however  that 
we  read  in  their  writings  is  utterly  untrustworthy,  and  mere  romance, 
such  as  the  stories  of  Seilanion  and  Aristonidas  (seepp.  123, 132).  Such 
stories  probably  arose  from  some  accidental  external  colouring  of  the 
bronze,  for  it  would  be  technically  impossible  to  arrange  in  the  casting 
that  blushes  or  pallor  should  be  produced  exactly  where  they  were 
wanted.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  Greeks  used  polychromy 
to  some  extent  for  their  bronze  statues,  and  endeavoured  to  obtain 
effects  by  artificial  means.  We  read  of  statues  of  athletes  in  which 
a bronze  was  employed  that  reproduced  the  sunburnt  appearance  of 
their  skin,  and  of  the  statues  of  sea-captains  which  the  Spartans 
dedicated  at  Delphi  as  being  of  a blue  colour,  to  indicate  their  marine 
associations. 

68 


COLOURING  OF  BRONZE  STATUES 

The  question  has  sometimes  been  raised  whether  the  Greeks 
applied  an  artificial  patina  of  some  kind  to  their  statues  in  order  to 
give  them  an  appearance  somewhat  similar  to  that  which  they  present 
to  us  when  coated  with  a natural  patina  after  burial  in  the  earth. 
If  this  was  the  case,  it  would  enable  us  to  understand  how  the  effects 
just  mentioned  were  produced,  for  it  can  hardly  have  been  due  to 
atmospheric  causes,  as  Plutarch  suggests  in  the  case  of  the  sea- 
captains.  There  is  some  evidence  that  the  Greeks  were  acquainted 
with  a kind  of  artificial  patina,  made  by  combining  a basis  of  sulphur 
with  silver,  iron,  or  lead,  according  to  the  colour  required ; this  was 
mixed  into  a paste  and  spread  over  the  bronze  and  heated,  producing 
a patinated  surface  of  sulphurate  of  bronze. 

But  the  patina  of  most  ancient  bronzes  that  have  come  down  to 
us  is  more  probably  due  to  natural  causes,  i.e.  to  the  chemical  action 
of  the  soil  in  which  they  have  lain.  This  view  is  supported  by  the 
fact  that  some  kinds  of  patina  are  distinctive  of  certain  localities.  For 
instance,  bronzes  found  in  Campania  are  usually  of  a bright  apple- 
green  colour,  while  those  found  in  Gaul  are  mostly  of  a brownish- 
yellow. 

The  final  stages  in  the  completion  of  a bronze  statue,  which 
include  inlaid  and  plated  work,  gilding  and  silvering  and  enamelling, 
were  all  with  a view  to  giving  it  a polychrome  appearance.  Inlaid 
work  in  gold  or  silver  was  employed  for  jewellery  or  patterns  of 
dresses,  and  enamels  of  coloured  glass  were  prepared  by  special  work- 
men for  the  eyes,  except  where  precious  stones  took  their  place. 
The  practices  of  gilding  and  silvering  statues  seem  to  have  been 
fairly  universal.^ 

^ The  writer  desires  to  express  his  indebtedness  to  Prof.  E.  A.  Gardner’s  Handbook  of  Greek 
Sculpture  (introductory  chapter),  for  much  of  the  information  in  the  foregoinj^  pages. 


GO 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  mSE  OF  GUEEK  SCULPTURE  (600-480  k.c.) 

Early  cult-images  — Adherence  to  conventional  types  — Athlete  statues  — 
Technical  inventions — The  Dorian  School — The  Ionian  School — Argos  — 
Athens — The  Aeginetan  Sehool. 

IT  IS  not  of  course  actually  possible  to  fix  any  given  date  for  the 
beginning  of  Greek  sculpture,  properly  so  called.  Our  evidence 
is  necessarily  derived  from  literary  traditions,  and  the  earliest 
sculptors  of  whose  names  there  is  any  record  cannot  be  placed  further 
back  than  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  There  are  also  a few 
sculptures  which  bear  inscriptions  of  about  the  same  date.  It  will 
therefore  be  found  that  the  year  600  b.c.  may  be  regarded  as  the 
most  convenient  point  at  which  to  begin  our  survey,  though  some 
existing  or  recorded  works  may  be  earlier,  and  some,  like  the  chest  of 
Kypselos,  and  the  throne  at  Amyklae,  actually  later,  but  conceived 
in  the  spirit  of  the  previous  age. 

The  rude  and  primitive  representations  of  deities  which  first  served 
the  Greeks  as  statues  in  their  temples  and  were  often  preserved  from 
motives  of  reverence,  hardly  deserve  to  be  regarded  as  works  of 
sculpture.  They  have  however  a claim  upon  our  consideration,  in 
spite  of  the  absence  of  artistic  feeling,  as  the  first  attempts  at  the 
embodiment  of  divinity  in  a concrete  form  for  purposes  of  worship. 
In  some  temples  a mere  fetish  in  the  form  of  a conical  stone  or 
baetylos,  as  at  Paphos,  or  a log  of  wood  without  any  attempt  at 
organic  form  or  ornamentation,  sufficed  for  an  object  of  worship,  its 
special  sanctity  being  due  to  the  supposed  fact  of  its  having  fallen 
from  heaven,  or  to  some  other  mysterious  association.  It  was  not 
until  some  advance  had  been  made  in  the  mastery  over  technical 
processes  that  art  was  enlisted  in  the  service  of  religion. 

The  primitive  wooden  figures  which  served  as  cult-images  were 
known  as  xoana,  meaning  ‘ hewn  objects  ’ ; ^ they  were  in  fiict  mere 

1 It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Mord  ^eo)  from  wliicli  this  is  derived  was  not  exclusively 
used  of  hewing  wood — marble  is  spoken  of  as  Miewn-stone.’ 

70 


I'LA  'l  E .\IX 


-:aki.v  kkmai.k  stah’ks  from  naxos  axd  samos 


I 'LA  Ti  : XX. 


I'HK  AI*0U,0  OF  I'KXEA  (MUNICH),  AND  THF  STKl.K  OK  ARISTION  (ATHENS) 


EARLY  CULT-IMAGES 


tree-trunks  witii  the  rudest  possible  indication  of  facial  features  or 
arms,  and  a plain  round  base  in  place  of  the  lower  members.  Judging 
from  the  finds  of  terra-cotta  figures  on  some  primitive  sites,  as  in 
Cyprus,  it  is  probable  that  clay  was  largely  used  for  smaller  images 
of  votive  character,  and  that  the  primitive  potter  deliberately  modelled 
these  in  the  manner  of  the  wooden  figures. 

So  too  when  marble  first  came  into  use,  the  columnar  form  was 
the  type  consistently  adopted  for  the  first  attempts  at  statues ; and 
an  example  in  bronze  is  furnished  by  the  Apollo  of  Amyklae  mentioned 
in  a previous  chapter.  Another  variety  of-  form  was  that  of  a board- 
like figure,  cut  in  a fiat,  almost  rectangular,  shape  instead  of  a 
cylindrical  one ; but  this  is  more  usually  found  in  clay  than  in  marble. 

Until  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  at  least  a strong  spirit  of  religious 
conservatism  seems  to  have  prevailed  all  over  Greece,  and  we  find 
not  a few  recorded  instances  of  the  preservation  of  these  images  in 
the  temples  as  objects  of  veneration,  or  of  the  adherence  to  some 
primitive  type  long  after  artistic  feeling  had  advanced  beyond  such 
conceptions.  At  Athens  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  Pericles  that 
the  ancient  cult-image  of  Athena  was  replaced  by  Pheidias’  wonderful 
statue  in  gold  and  ivory  ; and  even  then  it  was  carefully  preserved 
in  the  neighbouring  Erechtheion  with  other  sacred  relics.  A similar 
image  of  Hera  was  kept  in  her  temple  at  Argos,  the  chief  centre  of  her 
worship ; and  at  Phigaleia  in  Arcadia,  where  there  was  a cult  of  a 
horse-headed  Demeter,  we  read  that  even  in  the  fifth  century  the 
sculptor  Onatas  was  obliged  to  make  a new  image  exactly  on  the  lines 
of  the  old  (p.  85).  The  terra-cotta  statuettes  of  our  museums  show 
countless  examples  of  the  preservation  of  archaic  types  down  to  a 
late  date ; and  this  hieratic  tendency  was  very  strong  in  Athens,  as 
witnessed  by  the  permanence  of  the  archaic  coin-types  and  the  preser- 
vation of  the  formal  and  archaic  method  of  representing  Athena  on 
the  Panathenaic  prize  vases  (see  pp.  173,  239). 

We  now,  however,  enter  upon  a period  when  the  artistic  instincts 
of  the  Greeks  begin  to  make  themselves  felt  as  an  adjunct  to  their 
religious  beliefs ; and  we  shall  see  how  their  early  productions,  how- 
ever rude  and  helpless,  nevertheless  always  show  signs  of  the  struggle 
after  perfection  which  Pausanias  descried  in  the  works  he  attributes  to 
Daidalos  (p.  5).  We  have  laid  down  the  limits  of  this  archaic  and 
progressive  period  as  extending  from  GOO  to  480  b.c.,  a period  of  about 
120  years.  Put  althougli  the  difference  is  so  vast  between  works 
executed  about  the  time  of  these  respective  limits,  the  development  is 

71 


THE  RISE  OF  GREEK  SCULPTURE 

on  the  whole  so  uniform  and  regular  that  the  whole  may  be  con- 
veniently treated  as  one  period.  It  has  already  been  briefly  indicated 
(p.  9)  that  tlie  advance  of  Greek  sculpture  proceeds  on  different 
lines  from  that  of  architecture  and  painting,  the  time  of  its  perfection 
being  midway  between  those  of  the  other  two  arts.  The  minor 
decorative  arts  develop  far  more  rapidly  than  the  higher  branches, 
owing  to  the  different  circumstances  under  which  they  were  pro- 
duced, and  also  to  their  being  more  generally  subject  to  foreign 
influence. 

A prominent  feature  of  early  Greek  art  in  general,  and  not  least  of 
its  sculpture,  is  the  tendency  to  adopt  and  adhere  closely  to  certain 
types,  limited  in  number,  but  offering  in  the  issue  adequate  scope  for 
development  of  style.  In  vase-paintings  of  the  sixth  century  b.c.  this 
type-system  reaches  its  height,  every  one  of  the  more  popular  mytho- 
logical subjects  which  the  vase-painters  affected  being  conceived  after 
a fixed  type  according  to  certain  unvarying  principles  of  composition. 
But  for  the  present  we  must  limit  ourselves  to  the  consideration  of 
types  employed  for  single  figures,  as  illustrated  by  sculpture  both  of 
the  higher  and  humbler  kinds.  To  trace  the  origin  of  all  these  types 
would  be  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work  ; but  it  may  be  noted  that 
their  conventional  character  is  largely  due  to  a foreign  origin,  and  that 
the  transformation  and  Hellenisation  of  Oriental  types  may  be  very 
clearly  observed  in  some  classes  of  terra-cotta  figures,  such  as  those  of 
Cyprus,  Sardinia,  and  Rhodes.^ 

We  may  also  learn  from  a study  of  any  representative  collection  of 
archaic  terra-cotta  figures,  such  as  those  from  Rhodes  in  the  British 
Museum,  that  a large  proportion  of  them  are  conceived  in  one  of  two 
forms  : a seated  or  standing  draped  female  figure  (see  p.  187).  On  some 
ancient  sites,  as  at  Naukratis  in  the  Egyptian  Delta,  or  in  Cyprus, 
exactly  similar  figures  are  found  in  limestone ; and  from  such  figures 
we  can  form  a fair  idea  of  the  limitations  of  the  sixth-century  sculptor. 
In  the  earliest  examples  the  influence  of  the  xoana  or  column-figures 
is  still  to  be  observed  ; the  arms  are  rudimentary  and  the  lower  limbs 
are  not  distinguished ; but  gradually,  as  the  features  are  modelled  with 
more  and  more  success,  the  arms  and  legs  become  more  and  more 
distinctly  formed,  and  at  last  stand  out  free  from  the  body  or  from  the 
drapery.  Thus  it  was  that  Daidalos  ‘ made  his  statues  to  walk  ’ as 
the  old  tradition  went,  or  as  in  the  more  explicit  words  of  an  ancient 
commentator,  already  quoted  on  p.  22.  In  the  treatment  of  the 

^ See  Heuzey,  Cat.  des  figurines  du  Louvre,  i.  p.  113  ff. 


72 


EARLY  ATHLETE  STATUES 


drapery  the  same  gradual  advance  is  to  be  observed  from  flat  wooden- 
like  masses  up  to  sharply-defined  and  gracefully-falling  folds. 

Among  the  smaller  figures,  which  are  largely  of  a votive  character, 
male  types  are  curiously  rare ; but  in  life-size  statues  they  are  found 
almost  as  commonly  as  the  female,  only  with  this  difference,  that  the 
male  figures  are  almost  invariably  nude.  This  is  an  important  point, 
because  it  betokens  a new  invention  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks.  The 
feeling  of  early  times  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  nude  in  art, 
especially  among  the  Oriental  peoples,  and  it  was  so  to  a great  extent 
in  Greece.  The  adoption  of  the  nude  must,  therefore,  be  due  to  some 
special  cause,  which  we  doubtless  find  in  the  Greek  athletic  games. 
When  we  read  that  athletes  appeared  nude  at  Olympia  as  early  as 
720  B.C.,  and  Thucydides  tells  us  that  the  custom  had  become  universal 
by  his  day,  we  can  understand  how  the  principle  became  accepted  in 
art.  There  is  a series  of  statues  of  the  nude  male  type,  showing 
various  stages  of  artistic  development,  which  are  usually  known  by  the 
name  of  ‘ Apollo  ’ ; but  it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  they  are 
intended  to  represent  that  god.  At  all  events  there  are  equally  good 
grounds  for  regarding  them  as  representations,  if  not  portraits,  of 
athletes.  It  is  probable  that  the  first  statue  of  an  athlete  of  which  we 
have  literary  record,  that  of  Arrhachion  set  up  at  Phigaleia  in  564  b.c., 
was  of  similar  character.  At  all  events  we  may  see  in  this  series  of 
figures  a distinct  attempt  to  express  anatomical  details  and  reproduce 
typical  well-developed  male  figures. 

A few  other  types  occur  from  time  to  time,  such  as  seated  draped 
male  figures,  or  winged  figures,  human  and  animal,  or  hybrid  monsters, 
to  some  of  which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  recur ; but  almost  all 
archaic  works  of  art  fall  under  one  or  other  of  the  above  heads. 

We  may  now  devote  a few  words  to  the  literary  evidence  for  the 
art  of  this  period,  which  we  shall  find  to  be  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
traditions  that  this  or  that  artist  was  the  inventor  of  some  particular 
process  or  new  type.^  Unfortunately  these  traditions  are  very  vague 
and  untrustworthy,  and  they  must  be  used  with  the  utmost  caution. 
All  that  they  really  tell  us  is  that  certain  artists  attained  to  excellence 
or  showed  originality  in  some  particular  branch  of  art.  A parallel 
may  be  cited  from  the  Book  of  Genesis,  in  which  we  are  told  that 
Tubal-Cain  was  ‘the  forger  of  every  cutting-instrument  of  brass  and 
iron,’  and  his  brother  Jubal  ‘the  father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp 

^ See  Overbeck,  Schriftquellen , Nos.  2-59-374,  and  Henry  S.  Jones,  Select  Pusmges  illustrative  of 
Greek  Sculpture)  p.  7 ff. 


73 


THE  RISE  OF  GREEK  SCULPTURE 


and  pipe.’  The  classical  writers  are  no  more  to  be  taken  literally  in 
such  statements  than  the  compiler  of  antediluvian  history. 

The  most  interesting  traditions  recorded  by  the  writers  on  art  are 
those  relatincr  to  technical  discoveries  in  different  materials.  More 

O 

tlian  one  writer  has  told  the  story  of  Butades  of  Corinth,  who  is  said 
to  have  discovered  the  art  of  modelling  in  clay  by  filling  in  the  outline 
which  his  daughter  had  traced  of  her  lover’s  face  in  silhouette  against 
a wall.  But  the  same  invention  is  ascribed  to  Theodoros  and  Rhoikos 
of  Samos,  who  were  also  said  to  have  invented  the  method  of  casting 
bronze  statues  on  a hollow  core.  For  this  purpose  clay  models  would 
be  necessary.  The  true  version  is  that  clay  had  been  used  from 
very  early  times  for  figures,  and  that  when  bronze  statues  ceased  to  be 
cast  solid  (as  the  early  ones  were),  clay  was  naturally  utilised  as  stated. 
The  art  of  welding  iron  was  attributed  to  Glaukos  of  Chios  ; and 
schools  of  artists  are  mentioned  in  Crete,  Chios,  and  Naxos,  who 
made  great  advances  in  the  art  of  carving  in  marble.  Some  of  these 
sculptors  are  described  as  pupils  of  Daidalos,  among  whom  the  most 
prominent  were  Dipoinos  and  Skyllis  of  Crete,  who  were  supposed  to 
have  travelled  through  the  Peloponnese  and  to  have  founded  several 
schools.  Their  date  is  given  as  about  580  b.c.,  and  they  worked  not 
only  in  Parian  marble  but  in  gilt  bronze,  ebony,  and  ivory.  Statues 
of  Apollo,  Artemis,  Herakles,  and  Athena  are  attributed  to  them,  and 
also  a group  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 

A group  of  four  sculptors  is  associated  with  the  island  of  Samos  : 
Theodoros,  Bhoikos,  Smilis,  and  Telekles.  Although  numerous 
legends  have  gathered  about  their  names,  the  two  first  were  apparently 
representatives  of  a very  important  school,  dating  about  560-540  b.c. 
We  have  already  alluded  to  the  inventions  attributed  to  them,  and 
pointed  out  that  they  probably  mark  the  time  when  the  old  method  of 
casting  statues  in  solid  bronze  was  replaced  by  that  of  casting  them 
hollow  from  clay  models,  a process  which  has  held  the  field  almost 
exclusively  up  to  the  present  day.  They  were  also  said  to  have  been 
the  architects  of  the  famous  temples  of  Hera  at  Samos  and  Artemis  at 
Ephesus,  and  of  one  at  Sparta.  For  the  first-named  Smilis  made  the 
cultus-statue  which  replaced  a shapeless  plank  of  wood.  Bhoikos  is 
associated  with  a statue  of  Night  at  Ephesus,  and  Theodoros  also 
attained  to  great  fame  as  a gem-engraver  and  goldsmith.  To  the 
latter  are  attributed  the  famous  ring  of  Polykrates,  the  tyrant  of 
Samos,  and  the  gold  and  silver  vessels  dedicated  by  Croesus  at  Delphi. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  names  of  a sculptor  Theodoros  and  of 
74 


FLA  J K 


\.\l 


rilK  NIKK  Ol'  ARCHKRMOS 

('.M  IIKNS  MLSKIM) 


PLATE  XXII 


MKIOPKS  FROM  TEMPLES  AT  SEUNUS:  PERSEITS  S1,AVINC  MEDLSA.  AND  El'KOP. 


EARLY  LITERARY  RECORDS 


Rhoikos  have  recently  been  found  in  inscriptions  of  the  sixth  century, 
so  that  they  may  well  have  been  historical  personages.  Of  Telekles 
we  are  told  that  he  made  at  Ephesus  one-half  of  a statue  of  which 
Theodoros  made  the  other  half  at  Samos,  and  that  the  two  halves  were 
found  to  fit  perfectly  together.  This  marvellous  feat  is  explained  by 
the  fact  that  they  both  carefully  followed  the  Egyptian  system  of 
proportions. 

In  the  island  of  Chios  five  sculptors  (in  four  generations)  have  left 
their  names,  if  nothing  more : jNIelas  and  Mikkiades,  Archermos, 
Bupalos,  and  Athenis.  Archermos  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
represent  Nike  (Victory)  with  wings,  and  as  we  are  told  that  he  made 
statues  for  the  island  of  Delos,  it  is  possible  to  associate  with  him  a 
remarkable  early  statue  from  that  site,  which  represents  a winged 
female  figure.^  Curiously  enough,  with  the  statue  there  was  found  a base 
or  pedestal  which  seems  to  have  belonged  to  it,  bearing  an  inscription 
with  the  names  of  Mikkiades  and  Archermos  as  dedicators.  The  figure 
is  represented  with  face  and  body  to  the  front,  but  kneeling  sideways 
on  the  left  knee ; this,  however,  is  only  a convention  of  archaic  art  to 
indicate  rapid  sideways  motion.  Although  many  of  the  details,  such 
as  the  treatment  of  the  hair,  are  crude  and  conventional,  yet  the  con- 
ception betokens  great  originality  and  advance  in  execution.  Bupalos 
and  Athenis  are  known  to  us  from  literature  as  tlie  subject  of  lampoons 
by  the  poet  Hipponax,  whose  ugliness  they  had  ridiculed. 

The  list  of  names  of  sixth-century  sculptors  recorded  by  ancient 
writers  might  be  extended,  but  is  little  more  than  a catalogue.  It 
will,  therefore,  be  found  more  profitable  to  turn  from  the  literary 
records  to  the  existing  monuments,  most  of  which  are  indeed  quite 
recent  discoveries ; from  them  alone  can  we  learn  the  true  character- 
istics and  capabilities  of  sixth-century  sculpture.  It  will  be  found 
convenient  to  take  the  different  sites  in  turn  on  which  statues  have 
been  found,  dividing  them  into  two  main  groups  corresponding  to  the 
two  races  between  which  Greece  was  roughly  divided — the  Dorians 
and  the  lonians.  Some  of  these  sculptures  are  doubtless  the  product 
of  definitely  organised  schools,  such  as  we  read  of  at  Sparta,  Argos 
and  Sikyon,  and  at  Athens. 

The  Dorian  race  extended  its  influence  over  the  Peloponnese  as  far 
as  Megara,  Crete,  and  parts  of  Northern  and  Central  Greece,  such  as 
Boeotia,  as  well  as  the  highly-cultured  island  of  Sicily,  with  its  impor- 
tant colonies  ; under  the  heading  of  Ionian  art  are  included  the  coast 

lo 


' See  Plate  xxi. 


THE  RISE  OF  GREEK  SCULPTURE 

of  Asia  Minor  and  the  adjacent  islands,  together  with  the  other 
islands  of  the  Aegean,  Thessaly,  and,  last  but  not  least,  Athens. 

Crete  is  only  represented  by  a very  rude  stone  figure  from  Eleu- 
therna,  which  may  give  an  impression  of  the  works  of  Dipoinos  and 
Skyllis ; the  features  are  somewhat  sketchy,  and  the  treatment  of  the 
hair  is  decidedly  Egyptian.  But  Peloponnesian  art,  which,  according 
to  tradition,  was  dependent  on  Crete  for  its  origin,  is  more  productive 
of  material  for  study.  From  Sparta  we  have  a curious  series  of  archaic 
reliefs  which  seem  to  have  been  much  influenced  by  decorative  art  in 
bronze  and  ivory,  and  a characteristic  series  of  tomb-sculptures  also  in 
relief.  The  latter  represent  the  cult  of  the  heroified  dead ; in  accord- 
ance with  a long-established  Greek  belief ; he  is  represented  enthroned, 
his  family,  on  a mucli  smaller  scale  as  mortals,  bringing  offerings. 
The  modelling  is  exceedingly  flat,  in  a series  of  receding  planes  which 
give  a fair  idea  of  perspective,  the  details  being  rendered  by  engraving. 
At  Olympia  a colossal  head  of  Hera  was  found,  perhaps  from  the 
temple-statue  in  the  Heraion,  which,  rude  as  it  is,  is  not  without  its 
merits. 

But  the  most  remarkable  find  in  the  Peloponnese  is  the  so-called 
Apollo  of  Tenea,^  one  of  the  series  of  standing  male  figures  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  perhaps  represent  athletes.  This  statue,  now  at  Munich, 
appears  to  have  stood  over  a grave ; it  is  in  excellent  preservation,  and 
admirably  executed  both  in  proportions  and  details.  The  so-called 
‘ archaic  smile,’  which  is  generally  to  be  observed  on  the  countenance  of 
an  early  Greek  statue,  is  here  very  much  accentuated.  The  meaning  of 
this  expression  has  been  disputed ; it  has  been  urged  that  it  indicates 
the  pleasurable  effect  the  artist  desired  his  work  to  have  upon  the 
spectator,  but  it  is  perhaps  only  an  attempt  at  giving  expression  to  the 
face.  Although  the  slimness  of  this  figure  is  very  pronounced,  there 
is  a remarkable  amount  of  success  in  the  rendering  of  the  anatomical 
details. 

From  Boeotia  have  come  two  or  three  interesting  monuments, 
including  several  ‘ Apollo’  figures  of  the  same  type  as  that  from  Tenea. 
One  was  found  at  Orchomenos,  the  others  at  the  temple  of  Apollo 
Ptoos.  It  seems,  therefore,  probable  that  these  latter  figures  really 
represent  Apollo,  but  the  same  type  must  have  been  used  both  for  the 
god  and  for  the  athlete.  The  Orchomenos  figure  is  much  less  advanced 
than  the  others,  has  no  smile,  and  is  generally  heavier  and  stiffen 
Even  more  archaic  is  a group  of  two  figures  made  by  Dermes  and 

* See  Plate  xx. 


76 


EARLY  DORIAN  SCHOOLS 


Kitylos,  which  has  been  largely  influenced  by  Egyptian  models ; it  has 
an  inscription  which  can  hardly  be  later  than  COO  u.c.  The  Boeotian 
school  seems  to  have  been  independent,  yet  susceptible  to  external 
influences,  but  there  are  no  traces  of  it  in  the  literary  records. 

The  only  other  Dorian  site  that  need  be  mentioned  here  is  that  of 
Selinus  in  Sicily,  famous  for  its  six  great  Doric  temples  (see 
Chapter  iii.).  From  these  temples  a series  of  sculptured  metopes  of 
various  dates  has  been  obtained,  in  all  four  different  sets,  ranging 
from  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  down  to  the  fourth  century.  The 
earliest  consists  of  three  separate  reliefs,^  of  which  two  are  mytho- 
logical in  subject,  the  third  representing  a four-horse  chariot.  The 
other  two  scenes  are  the  slaying  of  Medusa  by  Perseus  and  the  capture 
of  two  brigands  by  Herakles.  The  Perseus  relief^  is  singularly  uncouth 
1 and  barbarous,  and  in  both  there  is  a considerable  appeal  to  a sense  of 
humour,  probably,  however,  entirely  unconscious.  While  the  upper 
parts  of  the  figures  are  in  full  face,  the  legs  are  in  profile,  and  the  pro- 
portions of  the  figures  are  generally  very  heavy,  with  abnormally  large 
heads.  The  chariot-scene  is  probably  copied  from  engraved  bronze- 
work  ; although  more  advanced  in  style  than  the  other  two,  the 
necessity  of  rendering  it  in  front  view  seems  to  have  caused  the  artist 
no  little  difficulty.  The  second  set  of  metopes,  found  in  1892,^  shows 
considerable  advance,  and  the  effect  is  much  more  pleasing ; one  of  the 
subjects,  Europa  riding  on  the  bull,  is  a particularly  spirited,  not  to  say 
charming,  piece  of  work.^  The  third  set  belongs  strictly  to  the  fifth 
century,  but  is  still  of  an  archaic  character ; one  slab  represents  a fallen 
giant  with  some  force  of  detail,  but  without  the  virility  that  we  look 
for  at  that  date ; others  represent  Zeus  and  Hera,  and  Actaeon 
devoured  by  his  hounds.^ 

Among  the  monuments  that  may  be  placed  in  the  category  of 
Ionian  art,  those  of  Asia  Minor  claim  a foremost  place.  As  the  heirs 
of  Mycenaean  culture,  the  Greeks  of  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  especially 
those  in  the  cities  and  islands  of  Ionia  proper,  were,  during  the  archaic 
period,  always  in  a comparatively  advanced  state  of  culture.  This  is 
exemplified  not  only  by  their  sculpture,  but  by  their  architecture  and 
painting,  of  which  we  treat  in  other  chapters  (iii.,  viii.,  ix.). 
Among  their  sculptors,  besides  the  names  already  recorded  from  Chios 
and  Samos,  was  Bathykles  of  Magnesia,  who  was  invited  to  Laconia  to 

^ From  temple  C ; see  p.  88.  Date  about  575  b.c.  ^ plate  xxii. 

^ Belonging  to  temple  O.  Date  about  500-480  b.c.  * Plate  xxii. 

^ Temple  E.  Date  about  480  b.c.  See  Benndorf,  Metopen  von  Selinunt,  pis.  5-9. 

77 


THE  RISE  OF  GREEK  SCULPTURE 


make  the  great  throne  of  Apollo  at  Amyklae.  In  Ionia  itself  there 
were  two  great  centres  of  worship,  both  of  which  have  been  explored 
for  the  British  Museum,  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Branchidae  near 
Miletus,  and  that  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus.  The  chief  remains  from 
Branchidae  are  a series  of  seated  statues  which  lined  the  sacred  way 
leading  to  the  temple.^  By  means  of  dedicatory  inscriptions  cut  on 
some  of  the  figures,  they  may  be  dated  about  550  b.c.  They  are 
almost  the  earliest  examples  we  have  in  marble  of  the  ‘ seated  ’ type, 
and  their  primitive  character  is  illustrated  by  the  effect  the  figures  give 
of  being  all  of  one  piece  witli  their  seats.  As  it  has  been  said,  ‘ they 
seem  to  have  sat  down  and  have  not  been  able  to  get  up  again.’  The 
drapery,  too,  is  exceedingly  heavy  and  fiat,  but  some  are  more 
advanced  in  style  than  others.  The  cultus-statue  of  this  temple  was 
by  the  sculptor  Kanachos  (see  below,  p.  84). 

The  earlier  temple  of  Ephesus  was  built  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century  b.c.,  and  several  of  its  columns,  as  we  learn  from  Herodotus, 
were  given  by  King  Croesus.  One  of  these  columns,  adorned  with 
sculptured  reliefs,  which  has  now  been  restored  at  the  British  Museum, 
bears  an  inscription  recording  this  fact,  and  can  thus  be  dated  about 
555-550  B.C.,  being  contemporaneous  with  Branchidae.  But  the  style 
is  much  more  advanced,  and  the  full  rounded  forms  and  somewhat 
sensuous  character  of  the  figures  illustrate  the  tendency  to  luxury  and 
softness  of  the  Ionian  race  at  that  time. 

The  influence  of  the  Ionian  school  is  also  seen  as  far  south  as 
Lycia,  in  the  so-called  Harpy  tomb,  brought  from  Xanthus  to  the 
British  Museum  by  Sir  Charles  Fellows.  It  is  sculptured  with  reliefs 
on  the  four  sides,  mostly  of  a sepulchral  character  ; the  main  subject 
on  each  side  is  that  of  worshippers  bringing  offerings  to  the  enthroned 
dead,  as  on  the  Spartan  reliefs  (p.  76).“  At  the  corners  are  monsters 
with  human  heads  and  birds’  wings  carrying  off  the  souls  of  the 
deceased,  which  are  represented  as  small  female  figures.  These  death - 
demons  were  formerly  known  as  Harpies,  whence  the  name  of  the 
tomb ; but  both  the  religious  associations  and  the  art-type  of  the 
Harpy  were  with  the  Greeks  of  an  entirely  different  character,  and 
these  figures  convey  no  idea  of  violence  or  rapacity,  answering  more 
to  the  Christian  angel.  The  style  of  the  reliefs  bears  out  what  has. 
already  been  said  of  those  from  Ephesus,  but  the  general  effect  is 
admirable.  The  date  is  probably  about  520  b.c. 

Of  the  Aegean  islands  several  have  yielded  interesting  examples  of 


1 One  of  these  is  given  on  Plate  xxiii. 

78 


2 See  Plate  xxiv. 


THK  “HARPY  TOMP,  FROM  XAN'I'HUS  (NOR'IH  AM)  WEST  SIDES) 

(HKI  I IMI  Ml  .M'X'.m) 


I'LATh:  A. VI I 


SKA'I'KI)  FKirKKFkO.M  HRANCHII>.\I 

(UK’IIISH  ML’SKCm) 


IONIAN  SCULPTURE 


archaic  art.  The  most  primitive  examples  come  from  Samos  and 
Naxos,  and  illustrate  the  two  types  of  xoana  of  which  we  have  spoken, 
the  ‘ column  ’ type  and  the  ‘ board  ’ type.  The  former,  from  Samos,  is 
in  the  Louvre,  and  bears  a dedication  to  Hera  by  one  Cheramyes.^  It 
is  intended  to  represent  that  goddess,  and  was  found  close  to  her 
temple,  but  the  head  is  wanting.  The  lower  portion  of  the  body  is 
purely  columnar  in  form,  except  that  the  toes  are  indicated  at  the 
base  ; the  upper  part  is  better  modelled,  but  the  artist  has  devoted  his 
attention  rather  to  the  lines  and  folds  of  the  drapery  than  to  the 
anatomy.  The  other,  found  in  Delos,  is  dedicated  to  Artemis  by 
Nicandra  of  Naxos,  and  represents  the  earliest  efforts  of  the  Naxian 
school. - It  is  very  flat  and  almost  rectangular  in  outline  ; the  arms  are 
free,  but  the  legs  are  not  indicated.  The  hair  is  treated  in  Egyptian 
fashion,  like  that  of  the  figure  from  Crete  (p.  76).  A better  specimen 
of  Naxian  art  is  a tombstone  at  Athens,  found  in  Boeotia,  with  a relief 
by  Alxenor,  which  dates  about  480  b.c.  It  represents  the  deceased  man 
playing  with  a dog,  and  is  a very  graceful  piece  of  work.  The  inscrip- 
tion on  the  base  runs  : ‘ Alxenor  the  Naxian  made  me  ; only  look  ! ’ 

The  islands  of  Melos,  Naxos,  and  Thera  have  yielded  figures  of 
‘ Apollo  ’ which  may  profitably  be  compared  with  those  from  Boeotia 
and  Tenea,  in  order  to  note  the  distinctions  between  the  schools  of  the 
mainland  and  of  the  Aegean.  A marked  peculiarity  of  these  island 
statues  is  the  tendency  (doubtless  due  to  the  influence  of  the  old  wood 
technique)  to  work  in  planes  parallel  to  the  front  and  sides,  and  at 
right  angles  to  one  another,  thus  producing  a sort  of  rectangular  sec> 
tion,  with  a general  flatness  of  surface  and  angularity  of  outline 
compared  with  the  rounded  forms  of  Boeotia.  From  Delos,  a great 
centre  for  dedications,  comes  a similar  series  of  female  figures  or 
‘ Artemis  ’ types,  forming  a counterpart  to  the  ‘ Apollo  ’ type  in  style 
and  subject. 

In  the  northern  islands  of  the  Aegean,  and  in  Thessaly,  Ionian 
influence  is  exemplified  mainly  by  sculptures  in  relief,  and  there  is  a 
very  effective  example  from  Thasos  representing  Apollo,  Hermes,  and 
three  Nymphs,  which,  from  the  skilful  treatment  of  the  drapery,  seems 
to  belong  to  the  fifth  century.  Another  from  Samothrace  is  more 
archaic  in  conception  and  treatment,  and  reminds  us  of  the  figures  on 
the  painted  vases  of  the  period.  It  represents  Agamemnon  with 
Talthybios  and  Epeios,  the  name  of  each  figure  being  inscribed  over  it, 
as  often  on  the  vases.  Lastly,  from  Thessaly  there  is  a tomb-relief 

1 See  Plate  xix.  ^ Ibid. 


79 


THE  RISE  OF  GREEK  SCULPTURE 


found  at  Pharsalos,  representing  two  maidens  holding  flowers.  The 
composition  is  admirable,  and  tlie  details  are  executed  with  great  refine- 
ment, but  not  always  with  accuracy.  These  three  reliefs  are  all  in  the 
Louvre. 

We  have  reserved  for  final  consideration  three  schools  of  art  which 
are  of  special  importance  as  leading  up  to  the  ultimate  development 
and  perfecting  of  sculpture  in  the  fifth  century,  those  of  Athens,  Argos 
(with  Sikyon),  and  Aegina.  Of  these,  Athens  has  of  late  years  attained 
an  overwhelming  importance  by  reason  of  the  wonderful  discoveries  on 
the  Acropolis,  which  are  mostly  products  of  local  art,  and  present  a 
complete  series  of  examples  extending  over  nearly  a hundred  years. 
These  sculptures  owe  their  preservation  to  an  event  which  though 
disastrous  to  Athens  has  been  most  fortunate  for  us.  When  after  the 
Persian  invasion  of  480  b.c.  the  surface  of  the  Acropolis  was  covered 
with  the  debris  of  broken  statues,  the  whole  of  these  were  utilised  to 
form  a foundation  for  the  new  buildings  and  other  works  of  art,  and 
were  preserved  almost  uninjured  below  the  surface  until  the  spade  of 
the  excavator,  in  1885-1889,  penetrated  down  to  the  living  rock  and 
brought  all  these  marvellous  treasures  to  light. 

Among  them  is  a series  of  sculptures  executed  in  a soft  limestone 
or  calcareous  tufa  known  to  the  Greeks  as  ^oro.9-stone,  the  surface 
of  which  was  always  painted,  as  was  the  case  with  terra-cotta  statues 
in  Italy.  The  colouring,  though  now  very  imperfectly  preserved,  was 
remarkably  brilliant  and  varied,  including  brick-red,  flesh-colour, 
bright  blue,  and  dark  green.  This  is  the  more  remarkable  as  such 
a manifold  scheme  of  colouring  is  otherwise  unknown  in  early  art ; 
on  the  vases  the  only  colour  used  is  a red  varying  from  brown  to 
purple,  and  blue  and  green  are  never  found.  It  is  only  on  the  terra- 
cotta figures  and  vases  of  the  fifth  century  that  they  appear,  and 
even  great  painters  were  slow  to  adopt  more  than  a limited  number 
(see  p.  141). 

The  remains  of  these  sculptures  show  that  they  are  from  pedi- 
mental  groups  of  a temple,  and  they  are  therefore  the  earliest 
examples  we  possess,  except  the  Selinus  metopes,  of  architectural 
sculpture.  They  appear  to  have  come  from  old  buildings  on  the 
Acropolis  which  cannot  now  be  identified.  The  subjects  represented 
are  the  labours  of  Herakles,  such  as  his  combats  with  the  hydra, 
with  Triton,  ‘ the  old  man  of  the  sea,’  and  with  the  giant  Typhon, 
whose  body  terminated  in  that  of  a serpent.^  The  latter  has  three 

^ See  Plate  xxv. 


80 


EAKLY  SCULPTURES  FROM  ATHENS 

heads,  all  of  which  are  well  preserved,  but  present  to  us  a somewhat 
grotesque  appearance  with  their  bright  red  faces,  bright  blue  beards, 
and  half-humorous  expression.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  each 
case  the  serpentine  or  piscine  body  of  the  monster,  with  its  tapering 
coils,  is  admirably  adapted  for  filling  up  the  angles  of  the  pediments, 
which  always  presented  a difficulty  to  the  sculptor,  and  they  may 
have  been  specially  selected  with  this  end  in  view.  A similar  work 
in  marble,  but  equally  highly  coloured,  is  supposed  to  have  come 
from  one  of  the  pediments  of  the  old  temple  of  Athena  on  the 
Acropolis,  the  predecessor  of  the  Parthenon  or  Erechtheion  (p.  40)  ; 
it  represents  Athena  in  combat  with  a giant. 

We  should  also  mention  here  a seated  figure  of  Athena  which 
has  been  conjecturally  associated  with  a sculptor  named  Endoios, 
whose  name  has  also  been  found  in  an  inscription.  He  is  spoken 
of  by  ancient  writers  as  a pupil  of  Haidalos,  but  in  any  case  was 
a typical  representative  of  the  early  Athenian  school,  and  is  stated 
to  have  made  a statue  of  this  type.  It  may  be  compared  with 
the  Ifranchidae  figures  (p.  78),  but  represents  a more  advanced 
stage  of  art,  in  which  the  figure  no  longer  seems  to  form  one  block 
with  the  chair. 

None  of  the  discoveries  on  the  Acropolis  are  more  noteworthy 
than  the  wonderful  series  of  draped  female  figures  to  which  a room 
is  now  devoted  in  the  JMuseum  there.  As  a writer  on  Greek  sculpture 
has  pointed  out,  they  have  revolutionised  our  knowledge  of  early 
Athenian  sculpture,  of  which  they  are  the  most  characteristic  products. 
Some  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  determining  whom  they 
represent,  owing  mainly  to  the  fact  that  in  archaic  art  the  same 
types  were  adopted  both  for  a divinity  and  for  the  worshippers  who 
gave  the  statues.  INIoreover  the  number  of  early  types  was  limited, 
and  it  is  only  by  the  use  of  attributes  that  particular  deities  can 
be  identified  with  certainty.  In  the  present  case,  however,  attributes 
are  mostly  wanting,  and  we  may  at  any  rate  assume  that  they  do 
not  represent  Athena,  whose  personality  was  one  of  the  earliest 
to  be  defined.  The  only  alternative,  then,  is  to  regard  them  as 
dedicated  figures  of  worshippers  or  perhaps  of  priestesses  of  the 
goddess. 

The  special  importance  of  these  sculptures  is  that  they  form 
a series,  similar  indeed  in  type,  but  differing  in  style  to  such  an 
extent  that  they  present  a complete  illustration  of  the  development 
of  the  Athenian  school  during  the  sixth  century  and  down  to 

81 


G.  A.-6 


THE  RISE  OF  GREEK  SCULPTURE 


480  B.c.  In  spite  of  their  superficial  likeness  no  two  are  identical, 
and  they  all  show  a marked  individuality  of  treatment  which 
distinguishes  them  at  a glance  from  other  schools. 

The  type  is  that  of  an  erect  figure,  standing  stiff  and  straight, 
with  right  fore-arm  bent  up  and  the  left  hand  drawing  aside  the 
skirt  of  the  drapery ; the  right  hand  has  in  all  cases  held  an  offering 
or  attribute,  but  only  one  or  two  now  remain.  The  treatment 
and  arrangement  of  the  drapery  call  not  only  for  admiration  but 
for  careful  study.  It  usually  consists  of  a long  tunic  {chiton)  with 
looped-up  sleeves,  over  which  a mantle  {2)cplos  or  kimation)  falls 
in  rich  and  graceful  folds,  rendered  with  great  skill.  The  borders 
of  the  robes  are  often  ornamented  with  inlaid  patterns.  Still  more 
remarkable  is  the  rendering  of  the  faces,  especially  in  the  more 
developed  examples,  and  the  gradual  evolution  of  an  expression, 
from  the  staring  countenances  of  the  earliest  statues  to  the  delicate 
rounded  contours,  the  softened  eyes  and  mouth  of  the  latest,  shows 
the  rapidly  developing  powers  of  the  Athenian  artist. 

We  now  turn  to  the  treatment  of  the  male  figure  by  the  artists 
of  this  school.  The  earliest  example  of  a male  figure  in  the  round 
from  the  Acropolis  represents  a man  carrying  a calf ; the  work  is 
somewhat  coarse  and  rough,  but  a great  advance  on  the  poros 
pediments.  Like  them  it  was  probably  richly  coloured.  An 
inscription  on  the  base  shows  it  to  belong  to  the  first  half  of  the 
sixth  century.  Of  more  value,  as  illustrating  the  treatment  of  male 
types  in  this  period,  are  some  of  the  archaic  reliefs,  including  one  of 
the  head  of  a diskobolos,  or  disc  (quoit)-thrower,  and  a much  later 
one  of  a man  mounting  a chariot.  The  latter  figure,  which  has  been 
identified  with  Apollo,  presents  an  excellent  study  of  drapery,  which 
is  conventionally  treated  in  parallel  folds.  Some  of  these  early 
monuments  are  in  the  form  of  carved  tombstones,  such  as  that  of 
the  warrior  Aristion  by  Aristokles,  which  was  found  near  INIarathon  ^ ; 
it  is,  however,  too  early  in  date  to  be  associated  with  the  great  battle. 
The  work  is  delicate  and  finished  in  the  extreme,  but  inaccurate  in 
certain  details,  as  in  the  right  hand  of  the  warrior,  which  is  drawn 
like  a foot,  or  the  eye,  which  is  represented  as  if  in  full  face,  as  in  the 
contemporary  vase  paintings. 

The  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  synchronises  with  a remarkable 
advance  in  the  artistic  history  of  Athens,  paving  the  w^ay  for  the 
approaching  perfection  of  sculpture.  We  are  now  introduced  to 

^ See  Plate  xx. 


82 


PLATE  .XXV 


ri.A  Th 


V.VI  7 


I IL.MAU-:  S'I'ATUK  WI'I  H I’.ASK  liKAKIXC.  XAMK  OF  AX  FKXOR,  FROM 

rni':  acroi>()i,is,  athkxs 


ARCHAIC  SCULPTURE  AT  ATHENS 


the  names  of  many  sculptors  who  attained  to  great  renown  in 
antiquity,  and  in  some  cases  we  are  enabled  to  make  comparisons 
with  existing  works.  Among  the  female  statues  from  the  Acropolis 
one  is  mounted  upon  a base  which  may  belong  to  it,  bearing  the 
name  of  Antenor,^  the  sculptor  who,  as  we  know  from  literary 
sources,  made  two  bronze  statues  of  Harmodios  and  Aristogeiton, 
the  liberators  of  Athens  from  the  tyrant  Hipparchos.  These  statues 

were  carried  off  to  Persia  by  Xerxes  in  480  n.c.,  but  were  brought 

back  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great;  meanwhile  new  ones  were 
set  up  by  Kritios  and  Nesiotes;  and  latterly  the  two  groups  stood 
side  by  side.  Both  have  now  perished,  but  we  have  several  copies 
of  the  statues,  of  which  the  best  is  a marble  group  at  Naples.  It 
has,  however,  been  badly  restored,  a fourth-century  head  having  been 
given  to  Aristogeiton.  It  is  not  absolutely  certain  which  of  the  two 
originals  this  group  represents,  but  criticism  is  generally  agreed  in 
preferring  Kritios  and  Nesiotes,  partly  on  the  ground  of  a description 
of  their  style  by  Lucian,  which  exactly  suits  the  Naples  group. 

For  an  idea  of  An  tenor’s  work  we  must,  then,  refer  to  the  female 
statue  placed  on  the  base  with  his  name,  while  in  this  group  we  may 

recognise  the  ‘ concise,  sinewy,  and  hard  ’ treatment  of  which  Lucian 

speaks.  The  two  figures  are,  in  fact,  highly-developed  athletes — a 
great  advance  indeed  upon  the  Apollo  types  of  Boeotia  and  the  islands 
— with  a tendency  towards  idealisation,  due  to  the  halo  of  glory  with 
which  the  two  heroes  were  surrounded  in  the  minds  of  the  Athenian 
people.  With  Kritios  and  Nesiotes  Lucian  associates  Hegias,  another 
sculptor  of  the  same  school,  and  there  is  more  than  one  head  of  a 
simple  severe  style  existing  at  Athens  which  has  been  considered  to 
reflect  their  characteristics.  The  best  is  a head  of  a young  athlete 
in  the  Acropolis  Museum,  in  which  we  are  struck  with  the  resemblance 
to  the  most  developed  of  the  female  statues ; “ in  both  there  is  a strong 
infusion  of  Doric  feeling. 


This  athletic  school  owes  its  existence  in  the  first  place  to  that  of 
Argos  and  Sikyon,  usually  known  as  the  Peloponnesian  school,  which 
had  a great  influence  in  the  archaic  period,  and  traced  its  origin  to 
the  time  of  Dipoinos  and  Skyllis  (see  p.  74).  Unfortunately  they 
worked  mainly  in  bronze,  and  consequently  there  are  hardly  any 
existing  works  which  can  be  attributed  to  this  school,  our  knowledge 
of  which  rests  almost  entirely  on  literary  evidence.  We  may,  however, 

* See  Plate  xxvi.  ^ See  Gardner,  Handbook  of  Greek  Scn/jdnre,  j’.  1B7  and  fig.  d/. 

88 


THE  RISE  OF  GREEK  SCULPTURE 


suppose  that  it  was  the  special  merit  of  this  school  to  have  developed 
and  finally  brought  to  perfection  the  athletic  type  in  art.  The 
influence  of  athletics  on  Greek  art,  to  which  allusion  has  more  than 
once  been  made,  is  nowhere  more  apparent  than  in  the  art  of  the 
Peloponnese,  and  was  essentially  typical  of  the  Dorian  character,  as 
contrasted  with  the  more  sensuous  and  luxurious  Ionian  races. 

The  earliest  artists  recorded  as  having  made  statues  of  victorious 


athletes  were  Eutelidas  and  Chrysothemis  of  Argos ; but  they  stated 
on  the  base  of  one  of  their  figures  that  they  ‘ learned  their  art  from 
their  predecessors,’  which  implies  the  existence  of  the  school  at  an 
earlier  period ; their  own  date  is  520  b.c.  We  have,  however,  already 
seen  that  such  statues  were  erected  as  early  as  564  b.c.  These  figures 
were  not  usually  meant  for  portraits;  Pliny  tells  us  that  only  the 
statues  of  those  who  had  won  three  times  were  likenesses  of  the 
victors. 

We  now  come  to  a sculptor  of  great  importance  in  the  history 
of  art,  though  little  is  known  of  his  works,  still  less  of  his  style.  But 
his  career  seems  to  have  extended  over  no  less  than  sixty-five  years. 
This  is  Ageladas  of  Argos,  who  in  520  b.c.  made  a bronze  statue  of 
an  Olympian  victor,  and  in  516  b.c.  a chariot-group  commemorating 
the  victory  of  Kleosthenes  of  Epidamnos.  The  other  limit  of  date 
is  given  by  a statue  of  Zeus  of  Ithome,  set  up  for  the  exiled 
Messenians  at  Naupaktos  in  455  b.c.  He  also  made  a Herakles 
Alexikakos  (‘Preserver  from  Evil’)  which  was  afterwards  set  up  at 
Athens  to  stay  the  plague  of  430  b.c.  His  chief  claim  to  distinction, 
however,  is  that  he  was  said  to  have  been  the  teacher  of  a great  trio 
of  sculptors  : Myron,  Pheidias,  and  Polykleitos.  Apparently  it  was 
mainly  on  this  that  his  fame  rested ; he  was  probably  a great  teacher 
without  much  individuality.  There  is  some  difficulty  about  dates 
in  regard  to  this  tradition,  but  it  is  not  an  impossibility,  although 
Polykleitos  was  decidedly  junior  to  the  other  two. 

Other  names  of  the  Argive  school  are  known  to  us,  but  one  alone 
calls  for  special  consideration.  This  is  Kanachos,  who  made  the  great 
temple-statue  of  Apollo  at  Miletus  (see  p.  78).  He  ‘was,  strictly 
speaking,  a native  of  Sikyon,  but  worked  with  Ageladas.  This  statue 
was  of  bronze,  and  he  made  a similar  one  in  cedar-wood  of  Apollo 
Ismenios,  the  patron  of  Thebes.  Of  the  Milesian  statue  we  know 
something  from  late  coins  of  that  city  and  from  a bronze  statuette 
in  the  British  Museum,  which  is  an  accurate  copy  of  not  very  much 
later  date.  The  figure  carried  or  held  a deer  in  his  hand,  but  in  the 


84 


the  schools  of  ARGOS  AND  AEGINA 

bronze  statuette  this  animal  is  rendered  on  such  an  absurdly  small 
scale  as  to  look  more  like  a rabbit ! 

Kanachos,  like  Ageladas,  did  not  confine  himself  to  athlete- 
statues,  but  in  spite  of  his  reputation  we  really  know  very  little  of 
his  work.  Cicero  speaks  of  his  style  as  being  too  stiff  for  truth  of 
detail,  and  harder  than  that  of  Kalamis  (see  p.  90).  In  spite  of  the 
imperfections  of  this  Argive  school,  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that 
so  little  which  can  be  attributed  to  it  has  been  preserved. 

With  regard  to  the  school  of  Aegina,  however,  we  are  more 
fortunate.  It  is  a school  which  enjoyed  a great  reputation  in 
antiquity,  and  in  modern  times  there  has  been  a tendency  to  attribute 
to  it  a wider  range  than  it  can  claim.  Pliny  speaks  highly  of 
Aeginetan  bronze,  and  the  artistic  activity  of  the  island  must  have 
been  great  until  it  lost  its  independence  about  455  b.c.  The  first 
sculptor  mentioned  is  Kallon,  a pu])il  of  Tektaios  and  Angelion,  who 
learned  from  Dipoinos  and  Skyllis  ; his  date  must  be  about  the  end 
of  the  sixth  century.  Quintilian  alludes  to  the  severity  of  his  works, 
and  couples  him  with  Hegias  of  Athens,  comparing  his  style  to  that 
of  the  Etruscans.  Few  works  by  him  are  recorded. 

But  the  most  famous  of  all  Aeginetan  sculptors  was  Onatas, 
whose  reputation  spread  all  over  the  Mediterranean,  bringing  him 
commissions  from  Sicily,  Italy,  and  Asia  Elinor,  as  well  as  Greece. 
He  was  obliged  on  one  occasion  to  reproduce  the  primitive  style  of 
a statue  of  Demeter  with  a horse’s  head  at  Phigaleia ; this,  however, 
was  an  isolated  instance.  His  most  important  work  was  a group  of 
statues  dedicated  at  Delphi  which  represented  the  death  of  the  king 
of  lapygia  in  battle  and  the  fight  over  his  body.  Inscriptions  show 
that  he  and  Kallon  were  working  at  Athens  previously  to  the  sack  in 
480  B.C.,  and  a chariot  which  he  made  for  Hiero  of  Syracuse  may  be 
even  more  recent  in  date.  A work  of  his  dedicated  by  the  Achaeans 
at  Olympia  represented  various  Homeric  heroes,  and  shows  a tendency 
to  go  back  to  heroic  scenes  and  types  in  order  to  commemorate 
contemporary  historical  events.  This  is  generally  characteristic  of 
Greek  art  and  poetry. 

This  school  seems  to  combine  in  its  characteristics  the  athletic 
traditions  of  the  Peloponnese  and  the  originality  of  Athenian  art ; this 
is  however  natural,  owing  to  its  geographical  position  and  political 
history.  We  can  now  turn  to  a monument  in  which  its  style  appears 
to  be  fully  exemplified,  and  that  too  when  it  had  reached  its  highest 
perfection.  This  is  the  principal  temple  in  the  island  of  Aegina, 

85 


THE  RISE  OF  GREEK  SCULPTURE 


fonnerly  known  as  that  of  Athena,  but  shown  by  recent  discoveries  to 
have  been  dedicated  to  Artemis  Aphaia.  The  sculptured  groups  in 
the  pediments  of  this  temple  were  unearthed  in  1811,  and  are  now 
in  the  Glyptothek  at  Munich,  having  been  largely  restored  by 
Thorwaldsen.  A few  additions  have  been  made  from  the  recent 
excavations,  but  nothing  of  special  importance. 

These  sculptures  are  supposed  to  have  been  erected  shortly  after 
li.c.  480  in  commemoration  of  the  battle  of  Salamis,  in  which  the 
xVeginetans  performed  prodigies  of  valour.  The  eastern  pediment, 
which  represents  an  expedition  made  against  Troy  before  the  war  by 
llerakles  and  Telamon,  is  more  elaborate  than  the  western,  but  not  so 
well  preserved  ; in  the  latter  a similar  subject  is  displayed,  the  fight  of 
Greeks  and  Trojans  over  the  body  of  Patroklos.  In  each  case  an 
Aeginetan  hero  is  commemorated,  in  the  eastern.  Telamon,  in  the 
western,  Achilles ; thus  illustrating  the  principle  referred  to  above  as 
characteristic  of  Greek  art.  The  arrangement  of  the  figures  in  the 
pediments  is  not  absolutely  certain,  but  that  adopted  by  Thorwaldsen 
has  been  generally  adhered  to ; reproductions  in  plaster  on  a reduced 
scale  may  be  seen  in  the  Archaic  Room  of  the  British  JMuseum. 

The  two  pediments  being  so  much  alike,  it  may  suffice  to 
describe  the  scheme  of  the  western  only,  as  the  more  complete  of  the 
two.  In  the  centre  is  the  figure  of  Athena,  the  protecting  deity  of  the 
Greeks  (as  in  Homer),  a somewhat  stiff  figure,  with  couched  spear, 
and  shield  on  left  arm.  At  her  feet  lies  a fallen  warrior,  usually  named 
Patroklos,  whose  body  one  from  each  side  endeavours  to  snatch  away, 
under  the  protection  of  a spearman.^  As  the  top  of  the  pediment 
contracts  more  and  more,  these  figures  are  followed  by  two  kneeling, 
a bowman  and  a spearman ; the  bowman  on  the  Trojan  side  is  in 
Oriental  costume,  with  Phrygian  cap,  and  trousers,  and  may  fairly  be 
named  Paris.  Lastly,  a wounded  warrior  lies  in  each  corner  of  the 
pediment. 

What  first  strikes  the  observer  is  the  ingenuity  with  which  the 
figures  are  fitted  into  the  pediment,  and  also  the  arrangement  by  which 
the  action  is  concentrated  and  increases  towards  the  centre ; these  are 
two  points  in  which  the  Greeks  always  excelled,  as  will  be  seen  in  the 
composition  of  later  pedimental  groups.  The  individual  figures, 
especially  those  who  stoop  to  grasp  the  fallen  warriors,  may  be  taken 
as  typical  of  the  Aeginetan  proficiency  in  the  treatment  of  nude  male 
forms ; if  not  in  this  case  athletes,  they  yet  show  the  perfect  proportion 

^ See  for  this  group  Plate  xxviir.,  upper  figure. 


8G 


PLATE  XXVI/ 


McrkKs  rkOM  i mk  afjwxa  i'kdi.mkn  rs : 

1.  ( HN'I'kAI.  CkOl'k  KkOM  WKS'l  KkN 

2,  WAkklOk,  KkOM  ICAS'l'KkN 


(MUNKII  ML'SKIM) 


I 


% 


k 


f 


I 

t 

i 


\ 


t 


THE  AEGINA  PEDIMENTS 


of  the  well-trained  athlete.  The  modelling  of  the  muscles  is  admirable, 
and  the  forms  are  lithe  and  supple,  free  from  any  superfluity  of  flesh. 
Moreover,  the  strenuous  and  vigorous  action  shown  in  their  attitudes 
denotes  a new  departure  from  the  archaic  stiffness  and  convention  of 
pose  that  have  hitherto  obtained.  Nor  are  the  figures  of  the  fallen 
warriors  less  meritorious  ; in  particular  one  on  the  left  of  the  east 
pediment  is  a masterpiece  in  its  exhibition  of  overwhelming  yet 
controlled  suffering,  as  indicated  by  the  clenched  teeth,  drawn  lips, 
and  contracted  knee.^  It  is  the  first  genuinely  successful  attempt  of 
Greek  art  to  reproduce  bodily  emotion,  and  in  its  reserve  contrasts 
most  favourably  with  the  exaggerated  realism  of  similar  figures  in  the 
third  century  n.c.,  such  as  the  Dying  Gaul  (p.  130).  Generally  speaking, 
the  style  of  the  eastern  pediment  is  more  advanced  than  that  of  the 
western,  but  the  similarity  is  too  great  to  allow  of  the  supposition 
that  they  are  not  the  work  of  one  sculptor. 

Whether  this  sculptor  was  Onatas,  the  principal  representative  of 
the  Aeginetan  school,  cannot  of  course  be  definitely  ascertained  ; 
but  it  is  at  least  exceedingly  probable.  We  know,  at  all  events, 
that  he  made  works  of  the  same  kind,  the  two  large  groups  referred 
to  above,  and  that  the  date  of  the  pediments  is  that  of  the  height  of 
his  career. 

Among  other  works  which,  on  good  grounds,  have  been  attributed  to 
this  school  are  the  so-called  Strangford  Apollo  in  the  British  Museum, 
a figure  of  the  type  of  the  pediments,  and  a remarkable  bronze  head  of 
a bearded  man  from  the  Athenian  Acropolis.  The  latter  is  certainly 
the  finest  existing  archaic  work  in  bronze,  the  material  which,  as  we 
know,  the  Aeginetan  sculptors  favoured. 

It  would  not  be  right  to  conclude  this  chapter  without  some  notice 
of  the  recent  discoveries  at  Delphi,  so  far  as  they  bear  on  this  period ; 
the  most  important  specimens  of  archaic  sculpture  are  from  the 
decoration  of  the  ‘Treasuries’  in  which  the  various  Greek  states 
deposited  their  offerings  on  tlie  Sacred  Way,  more  particularly  those 
of  the  Sikyonians,  Athenians,  and  Knidians.  The  metopes  of  the 
Sikyonian  treasury  date  from  the  early  part  of  the  sixth  century,  and 
are  a good  example  of  the  Dorian  school.  One  representing  Europa 
on  the  bull  presents  an  interesting  parallel  to  that  from  Selinus 
figured  on  Plate  xxii.,  another  depicts  the  ship  Argo,  and  a third  has 
a remarkable  scene  of  three  heroes  driving  cattle  back  from  a raid. 

^ Plate  XXVIII.,  lower  figure. 


87 


THE  RISE  OF  GREEK  SCULPTURE 


In  this  Treasury  there  were  also  found  two  early  ‘Apollo’  statues 
(cf.  p.  76)  by  Argive  sculptors. 

The  Treasury  of  the  Athenians,  erected  from  the  spoils  of 
IVIaratlion,  comes  next  in  date.  The  metopes,  which  portray  the 
labours  of  Theseus  and  Ilerakles,  may  be  instructively  compared  with 
the  contemporary  red-figured  vases  of  ‘severe’  style  (p.  176);  they 
partake  more  of  the  character  of  decorative  art  than  the  vigorous 
athletic  compositions  of  the  Parthenon. 

Almost  contemporaneous  with  this  is  the  Treasury  now  usually 
assigned  to  the  Knidians,  which  has  a sculptured  pediment  and  frieze. 
Tlie  former  has  for  its  subject  the  rape  of  the  Delphic  tripod  by 
Herakles,  but  the  composition  is  utterly  unsuited  for  a pediment, 
being  in  tlie  form  of  a procession,  and  therefore  more  appropriate  to 
a frieze ; there  is  no  balance  of  figures  or  concentration  of  interest. 
The  frieze  is  very  diverse  in  style  and  subject,  and  has  been  described 
as  a ‘gallery  of  reliefs.’  On  the  west  side  is  the  Apotheosis  of 
Herakles ; on  the  south,  the  rape  of  the  Leukippidae  by  Castor  and 
Pollux ; on  the  east,  the  combat  of  INIenelaos  and  Hector  over 
Euphorbos.^  The  best  work  is  seen  in  the  northern  frieze,  where 
the  subject  is  the  battle  of  the  gods  and  giants,  the  former  including 
Aeolus  with  his  bag  of  winds  and  Kybele  in  her  chariot  drawn  by 
lions.  It  shows  great  vigour  both  in  composition  and  in  the  details, 
and  its  style  seems  to  be  a peculiar  development  of  the  Ionic  school 
under  the  influence  of  the  Doric. ^ 

^ Cf.  tlie  vase  given  on  Plate  lxx. 

^ See  generally  Gardner’s  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  Suppl.  p.  527  ff. 


88 


CHAPTER  VI 


PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 

Rise  of  monumental  sculpture — Kalamis,  Pythagoras,  and  Myron — The  Olympia 
sculptures — Pheidias — The  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon — Other  Attic  sculp- 
tures and  sculptors — Polykleitos — Architectural  monuments. 

WITH  the  conclusion  of  the  last  chapter  we  reached  the 
important  epoch  of  the  Persian  Wars,  immediately  heralding 
the  time  when  Greek  sculpture  in  its  perfected  form 
suddenly  burst  forth  upon  the  world.  The  long  period  of  training  is 
over,  and  the  various  schools  of  art  scattered  over  Greece  have 
performed  their  task  of  developing  artistic  skill  and  creative  genius  in 
its  various  directions.  Now  for  a time,  as  it  were,  they  stand  aside,  and 
Athens,  the  acknowledged  political  and  military  head  of  Greece,  also 
takes  her  place  as  supreme  in  all  branches  of  art.  The  Persian  Wars 
indeed  proved  a blessing  in  disguise,  for  the  sack  of  the  Acropolis  in 
480  B.C.,  and  the  destruction  of  buildings  and  statues,  gave  an 
extraordinary  impetus  to  the  genius  of  this  wonderful  people,  and 
impelled  them  to  undertake  with  enthusiasm  the  labour  of  rendering 
their  city  even  more  beautiful  than  before.  And  working  throughout 
the  products  of  this  new  artistic  movement  a strong  religious  and 
patriotic  motive  is  apparent,  from  the  sculptures  of  Aegina  down  to 
the  completion  of  the  adornment  of  the  Athenian  Acropolis ; more 
than  one  of  the  buildings  of  this  period  was  raised  with  the  express 
purpose  of  commemorating  the  great  victories,  and  the  same  idea  runs 
through  all  their  sculptured  decoration.  The  subjects  represented — 
combats  between  Europeans  and  Asiatics,  gods  and  giants,  Greeks  and 
Amazons,  or  Lapiths  and  Centaurs — are  all  chosen  as  emblematic  of 
the  great  struggle  from  which  the  Greeks  had  emerged  victorious,  and 
of  a deliverance  from  tyranny.  At  Athens,  too,  political  circumstances 
tended  to  encourage  artistic  production,  with  the  treasures  derived 
from  the  Delian  confederacy,  and  under  the  favouring  auspices  of  two 
such  men  as  Kimon  and  Pericles. 


89 


PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 


Before  treating  of  Pheidias  and  the  great*  monumental  sculptures 
associated  Avith  his  name,  it  may  be  more  convenient,  as  well  as  more 
strictly  chronological,  to  discuss  a group  of  sculptors  who  flourished 
during  the  period  480-440  b.c.,  and  really  furnish  a connecting  link  with 
the  great  names  of  the  earlier  Athenian  and  Aeginetan  schools.  To 
the  same  period  belongs  a series  of  temple-sculptures  which  stand  mid- 
way between  Aegina  and  the  Parthenon. 

The  first  of  these  sculptors  is  Kalamis,  generally  regarded  as  an 
Athenian,  who  has  indeed  sometimes  been  classed  among  the  archaic 
sculptors,  but  at  least  stands  on  the  threshold  of  the  perfected  style, 
combining  some  archaic  characteristics,  such  as  quaintness  and  severity, 
with  grace  and  power  of  expression.  He  Avas  a very  versatile  and 
prolific  sculptor,  Avorking  in  marble,  bronze,  and  gold  and  ivory,  and 
shoAved  a great  advance  in  the  rendering  of  feminine  drapery.  Some  of 
his  subjects,  such  as  his  Hermes  carrying  the  ram,  seem  to  indicate  a 
preference  for  old-fashioned  types.  His  most  famous  production,  the 
Aphrodite  Sosandra,  is  singled  out  for  special  commendation  by  Lucian, 
Avho  speaks  of  its  modesty,  its  noble  and  unconscious  smile,  and  the 
comely  arrangement  of  its  drapery.  Cicero  and  Quintilian  speak  of  his 
work  as  still  preserving  a measure  of  archaic  stiffness,  yet  comparing 
favourably  Avith  the  Aeginetan  and  Sikyonian  schools.  His  active 
period  cannot  be  ascertained  Avith  certainty,  but  seems  to  haA^e  been 
from  about  480  to  450  b.c. 

Although  there  are  no  existing  Avorks  of  art  Avhich  can  be  certainly 
connected  Avith  Kalamis,  there  are  at  least  three  Avhich  have  been 
thought  to  represent  his  style.  These  are  the  Giustiniani  Hestia  at 
Rome,  the  Ludovisi  throne,  and  the  recently-discovered  bronze 
charioteer  from  Delphi.  The  last  named,  the  finest  knoAvn  example  of 
a Greek  bronze  statue,  and  the  only  life-size  figure  existing  in  this 
material  from  so  early  a date,  Avas  dedicated  by  Hieron,  King  of 
Syracuse,  after  one  of  his  Auctories  in  the  Pythian  games,  and  represents 
his  charioteer  Polyzalos.^  It  is  a beardless  figure,  Avearing  the  long 
girdled  chiton  in  Avhich  charioteers  AA^ere  ahvays  clad,  Avhich  falls  in 
straight  formal  folds  to  the  feet,  and  it  is  in  almost  perfect  preserva- 
tion. The  drapery  of  the  Hestia  is  treated  in  very  similar  fashion. 

The  liudovisi  throne  “ is  ornamented  AAuth  reliefs,  those  on  the 


^ See  Plate  xxviii. 

2 iiee  liomische  Mittheil.  1892,  pi.  2,  p.  82  ff.,  and  Journ.  Hellen.  Stud.  xiv.  p.  202.  It  is  now  in 
tlie  Museo  delle  Terme  at  Rome  (Amelung,  The  Museums  of  Rome,  pp.  2,  2G0).  Plate  xxix. 
illustrates  the  back. 

90 


rLATE  xsr/!/ 


'I'liK  likOXZK  CHARIOTKKK  FROM  DI-J.IMII 


/'I..  I T/-:  .\:\7.\ 


•I  l\.«  >M  ■ i \\ M \ \ 


K A L A M 1 8 


sides  representing  a courtesan  playing  flutes  and  a priestess  burning 
incense,  that  at  the  back  the  birth  of  Aphrodite,  who  appears  as  a 
half-figure  rising  from  the  sea  with  the  aid  of  two  Horae  (Seasons) ; the 
two  side  figures  may  be  typical  of  profane  and  sacred  love.  The 
treatment  of  the  hair  and  drapery  in  fine  parallel  waved  lines  is  what  we 
might  expect  of  Kalamis,  though  it  must  not  be  ignored  that  some  have 
thought  the  throne  to  be  an  archaistic  work  ; but  both  the  shape  of 
the  heads  and  the  style  of  the  drapery  resemble  the  Giustiniani  Hestia. 
But  after  all  we  do  not  really  know  much  of  the  style  of  Kalamis,  and 
such  attributions  can  only  be  mere  guess-work.  Pliny  records  a curious 
story  that  he  was  much  more  successful  in  his  figures  of  horses  than  in 
those  of  men,  and  that  in  a chariot-group  designed  by  him  the  driver 
was  made  by  another  artist,  named  Praxiteles ; but  he  attributes  the 
origin  of  this  story  to  jealousy,  and  in  any  case  it  need  hardly  be  taken 
seriously  as  bearing  on  the  Delphi  charioteer  and  its  relation  to 
Kalamis. 

Of  his  contemporary,  Pythagoras  of  Phegion,  much  the  same  may 
be  said ; of  him,  in  fact,  we  know  even  less  than  of  Kalamis.  His 
fame  rested  on  subjects  curiously  neglected  by  Kalamis,  namely 
statues  of  heroes  and  athletes,  and  no  divinities  are  included  in  the 
list.  Pliny  alludes  to  his  success  in  rendering  veins  and  sinews,  and 
in  the  treatment  of  the  hair,  and  it  is  evident  that  he  inherited  the 
traditions  of  the  Peloponnesian  athletic  schools.  Other  writers  speak 
of  him  as  a master  of  symmetry  and  rhythm.  From  an  inscribed  base 
found  at  Olympia  we  know  that  he  originally  came  from  Samos. 
His  two  most  famous  productions  were  a lame  man  ‘ who  seemed  to 
make  even  the  spectator  feel  the  pain  of  the  wound,’  and  a statue 
of  the  boxer  Euthymos  of  Locri  in  Italy,  who  won  three  victories 
at  Olympia  previous  to  472  n.c.  The  former  statue  has  sometimes 
been  identified  with  Philoctetes.  In  regard  to  the  latter  it  has  been 
suggested^ — and  is  for  many  reasons  extremely  probable — that  the 
well-known  Choiseul-Gouffier  Apollo  in  the  British  Museum,  and 
its  counterpart,  the  ‘ Apollo  on  the  omphalos  ’ at  Athens,  may  be 
identified  with  this  Euthymos.  Both  statues  have,  as  Payne  Knight 
observed  nearly  a century  ago,  much  more  the  character  of  a muscular 
athlete  than  of  an  Apollo. 

A third  artist  who  ranks  chronologically  with  these  two,  though 
fiir  excelling  them,  not  only  in  reputation  but  in  actual  merit,  is 
Myron,  a native  of  Eleutherae  in  Boeotia,  but  by  residence  an  Athenian. 


' See  Jonrn.  Hell.  Stud.,  i.  p.  100  ff. 


91 


PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 

A^ot  only  was  he  one  of  the  most  famous  sculptors  in  antiquity,  but 
one  of  his  works,  the  renowned  Diskobolos,  is  at  the  present  day 
almost  the  best-known  example  of  Greek  sculpture  of  this  period, 
if  not  of  all  times.  We  are  more  fortunate  in  his  case  than  in  the 
two  preceding,  for  we  not  only  possess  several  admirable  copies  of  this 
statue,  but  also  one  or  more  of  another  famous  work,  the  Marsyas. 
On  the  otlier  hand,  the  wonderful  cow  or  heifer,  so  often  sung  of  by 
later  poets  of  Greece  and  Rome,  can  only  now  be  reproduced  by  the 
imagination.  Like  Kalamis,  he  was  both  versatile  and  prolific,  the 
range  of  his  subjects  including  gods,  heroes,  athletes,  such  as  the 
runner  Ladas,  and  animals ; he  worked  exclusively  in  bronze. 

All  his  works  were  much  praised  for  their  freedom  and  naturalism, 
and  for  the  life-like  attitudes  and  complexity  of  movement,  such  as 
we  see  in  the  Diskobolos.  His  great  merit  is  that  to  the  principle 
of  Symmetry  in  which  alone  earlier  artists  had  been  content  to  excel, 
he  added  that  of  Rhythm  or  Balance.  Pliny  says  of  him  : ‘ IMyron 
was  the  first  to  extend  the  range  of  observation  of  nature,  and  was 
more  versatile  than  Polykleitos  . . . yet  he  concerned  himself  only 
with  the  body,  and  did  not  express  mental  feelings.  In  the  rendering 
of  the  hair  he  made  no  advance  on  archaic  models.’  Quintilian  says 
that  the  Diskobolos  is  chiefly  to  be  admired  for  the  novelty  and 
difficulty  of  the  subject,  and  that  any  one  who  found  fault  with  its 
studied  contortion  would  thereby  disqualify  himself  as  a critic. 

The  Diskobolos  is  remarkable  as  representing  not  merely  an  action 
but  a single  moment  in  the  course  of  that  action ; it  is  therefore  at 
first  sight  somewhat  puzzling,  if  not  eccentric,  that  such  a moment 
should  be  chosen  when  the  figure  is  so  distorted,  and  could  not,  if 
alive,  maintain  such  a position  for  more  than  a few  seconds.  It  is 
in  fact  an  instantaneous  photograph,’  and  shows  us,  as  do  other 
works  such  as  the  horses  of  the  Parthenon  frieze,  what  close  observers 
of  nature  the  Greeks  were,  even  without  the  scientific  aids  that  the 
moderns  have  ready  to  hand.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  explain  the 
attitude  in  words,  and  yet  it  is  exactly  the  position  that  the  quoit- 
thrower  was  bound  to  adopt  at  a certain  point  while  gathering  impetus 
for  the  throw,  as  it  is  described  by  Lucian  : ‘ bending  down  into  the 
position  for  the  throw,  turning  towards  the  hand  that  holds  the  disc, 
slightly  bending  one  knee,  he  seems  just  about  to  pull  himself  together 
again  after  the  throw.’  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  head 
in  several  copies  (including  one  in  the  British  JMuseum)  has  been 
wrongly  restored,  and  should  be  looking  up  to  the  right  hand,  other- 
02 


\.\  .\ 


I'LATi:  . 


IHK  I MSKOr.OLOS  OK  .M\RO\ 

(I'AI.AZZO  I.ANCKLOT n,  KoMK) 


PLATE  XXX/ 


i'k;i'ri:s  i'rom  'niK  \vi-:s'r  i>i<:i >i m kn'I',  i'KMim.k  ok  zi-.l’s,  olvmima 


MYRON 


wise  the  balance  could  not  be  maintained.  The  only  correct  copy 
is  that  in  the  Lancelotti  collection  at  Home,  of  which  an  illustration 
is  here  given. ^ 

His  other  famous  statue,  the  Ladas,  represented  a winner  of  the 
long  foot-race  at  Olympia,  who  died  from  over-effort.  It  is  said 
to  have  expressed  by  the  tension  of  the  limbs  and  breathless  lips  the 
eager  expectation  of  the  victory  for  which  he  is  about  to  contend. 
The  IMarsyas  represented  the  Satyr  of  that  name  wondering  at  the 
flutes  which  Athena  had  let  fall,  and  formed  a group  with  the  figure 
of  the  goddess.  According  to  the  story  he  picked  them  up  and 
challenged  Apollo  to  a contest  in  which  he  failed  miserably.  The 
Marsyas  figure  is  preserved  to  us  in  two  copies,  a marble  at  Rome 
and  a bronze  in  the  British  iMuseum.  Here  again  we  note  the  choice 
by  the  sculptor  of  a momentary  action,  the  starting  back  of  Marsyas 
at  the  instant  when  he  finds  the  flutes  and  is  confronted  with  their 
late  owner.  In  spite  of  the  interest  of  the  subject,  this  group  does 
not  seem  to  have  enjoyed  the  fame  of  the  others. 

The  British  Museum  bronze  is  a spirited  piece  of  work,  bearing 
a close  resemblance,  especially  in  its  pose,  to  the  statue  in  the  Vatican. 
It  is  true  that  it  recalls  Myron  rather  in  its  conception  than  in  its 
treatment,  this  being  especially  conspicuous  in  the  hair,  with  its  rough 
and  strongly-accentuated  locks.  IMyron,  we  know,  adhered  to  the 
conventions  of  the  archaic  period  in  his  rendering  of  hair  ; but  this 
head  is  much  more  in  the  manner  of  the  Pergamene  School,  and  the 
bronze  can  hardly  be  dated  earlier  than  300  b.c. 

The  great  Doric  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  of  which  the  ground 
plan  has  now  been  laid  bare  by  the  spade,  was  erected  about  the 
year  460  b.c.,  and  was  decorated  with  sculptured  pediments  and 
metopes,  the  greater  part  of  which  have  also  been  recovered  by  excava- 
tion. The  traveller  Pausanias,  who  does  not  always  give  us  just  the 
information  we  most  require  about  ancient  buildings,  is  in  this  case 
most  explicit.  He  not  only  tells  us  what  were  the  subjects  of  the 
pediments,  but  gives  us  the  names  of  the  sculptors,  Alkamenes  of  the 
western,  Paionios  of  the  eastern.  By  a provoking  fate,  however,  the 
very  explicitness  of  this  statement  here  lands  us  in  a great  difficulty, 
for  our  knowledge  of  these  two  sculptors  from  other  sources  hardly 
supports  his  statement.  Without  plunging  into  the  minutiae  of 
criticism  which  this  discrepancy  has  evoked,  it  may  suffice  here  to  say 
that  these  two  artists  were  most  likely  only  responsible  for  the 

^ See  Plate  xxx. 


93 


PHEIDIA8  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 

original  designs,  which  were  entrusted  to  a local  school  of  sculptors 
for  execution. 

The  eastern  pediment  represents  the  preparations  for  the  chariot- 
race  of  Pelops  and  Oinomaos  at  Olympia,  when  the  former  was  suing 
for  the  hand  of  the  latter’s  daughter  Ilippodameia.  The  appropriate- 
ness of  a local  myth,  in  which  was  seen  a prototype  of  tlie  future 
contests  in  the  games,  is  obvious.  All  the  figures  have  been  recovered, 
but  their  arrangement  is  a matter  of  some  uncertainty,  except  as 
regards  the  central  and  terminal  figures.  The  middle  of  the  pediment 
was  occupied  by  the  figure  of  the  patron  deity  Zeus,  the  umpire  of 
the  race,  flanked  on  one  side  by  Pelops  and  his  future  bride,  on  the 
other  by  Oinomaos  and  his  wife  Sterope.  In  the  angles  are  reclining 
figures  of  river-gods,  the  local  streams  Alpheios  and  Kladeos.  The 
spaces  in  between  are  filled  by  the  chariots  of  the  competitors  with 
their  drivers,  and  kneeling  or  seated  figures.  One  of  the  latter,  a 
pensive,  aged  man,  whose  features  are  treated  in  most  realistic,  almost 
])ortrait-like  fashion,  has  been  thought  to  represent  ]\Iyrtilos,  the 
treacherous  charioteer  of  Oinomaos  ; but  more  probably  he  is  a seer. 
This  is  the  pediment  attributed  to  Paionios,  but  the  style  of  the 
sculptures  has  little  in  common  with  an  existing  statue  that  we  have 
from  his  hand  (see  p.  108). 

The  western  pediment,  though  very  similar  in  style,  is  startlingly 
different  in  composition.  The  rule  is  observed  here  as  elsewhere  that 
the  eastern  pediment  of  a temple  should  show  less  action  than  the 
western,  and  so  we  have,  instead  of  a group  of  reposeful  figures 
symmetrically  disposed,  a series  of  groups  of  struggling  figures  in 
violent  action.  The  subject  is  the  fight  between  the  Lapiths  and 
Centaurs  at  the  wedding  of  Peirithoos,  and  the  latter  are  represented 
carrying  off  the  bride  and  her  female  associates.  Here  again  the 
centre  is  occupied  by  a god,  in  this  case  Apollo,  and  in  the  angles  are 
reclining  figures  of  nymphs.  In  front  of  the  latter  are  two  more 
reclining  figures,  of  somewhat  realistically  treated  old  women.  On 
either  side  of  the  central  figure  are  three  groups  of  combatants,  two 
of  which  represent  Lapiths  delivering  women  from  the  fury  of  their 
captors,  and  the  remaining  groups,  a simple  combat  of  a Lapith  and 
a Centaur.  In  spite  of  the  excited  and  vehement  action,  the  symmetry 
and  balance  of  the  groups  are  wonderfully  well  preserved,  and  generally 
the  parallelism  of  the  two  pediments  is  remarkable.^ 

The  style  of  both,  though  often  bold  and  vigorous,  is  very  unequal, 

Plate  XXXI.  gives  one  of  the  reclining  figures  and  the  best  group  of  Centaur  and  captive. 

94 


1 


THE  OLYMPIA  PEDIMENTS 


by  far  the  finest  figure  being  the  Apollo  of  the  western,  in  spite  of  its 
somewhat  archaic  character,  which  almost  recalls  the  Aegina  figures. 
On  the  other  hand  realism  is,  as  has  been  noted,  a prominent  character- 
istic of  the  three  elderly  figures,  the  seer  and  the  old  women.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  colour  was  largely  employed  in  these  sculptures, 
which  must  have  given  the  ancient  spectator  a very  different  impres- 
sion from  what  we  now  feel.  This  inequality  of  treatment  is  most 
likely  due  to  the  employment  of  a local  school  of  sculptors  to  execute 
the  design,  and  that  probably  a school  which,  like  others  in  the 
Peloponnese,  had  made  athletic  figures  a speciality.  But  we  must 
feel  bound  to  acce])t  the  statement  of  Pausanias,  at  least  in  the  sense 
that  the  original  designs  came  from  the  two  artists  he  mentions. 

The  sculptured  metopes  of  this  temple  are  singularly  akin  to 
the  pediments,  both  in  style  and  execution  ; they  were  placed,  not 
over  the  outer  colonnade,  but  over  the  inner  columns,  six  at  each 
end  of  the  temple.  They  represent  the  twelve  labours  of  Herakles, 
but  are  for  the  most  part  very  fragmentary ; those  representing 
Herakles  receiving  from  Atlas  the  apples  from  the  garden  of  the 
Hesperides  and  the  contest  Avith  the  Cretan  bull  are  alone  in  any  way 
complete.^  Both  of  these  are  very  fine  compositions,  especially  the 
vigorous  conception  of  the  struggle  with  the  bull ; the  figures  are 
noble  and  broadly  treated,  and  the  Atlas  scene  is  enlivened  by  touches 
of  naive  realism.  Whether  designed  by  the  sculptors  of  the  pedi- 
ments or  not,  these  metopes  were  certainly  executed  by  the  same 
local  school. 

The  works  which  we  have  been  considering  up  to  this  point 
represent  what  is  sometimes  called  the  Kimonian  period,  that  is,  the 
time  between  the  Persian  Wars  and  the  rise  of  the  Athenian  democracy 
under  Pericles,  which  ousted  Kimon  and  the  aristocratic  party  from 
power.  As  far  as  Athens  is  concerned,  this  political  change  is  the 
signal  for  a great  artistic  advance,  fostered  by  the  enthusiastic  patron- 
age of  the  great  democratic  leader,  whose  cultured  mind  displayed 
itself  in  the  erection  of  many  magnificent  buildings  and  Avorks  of  art. 
This  period,  from  450  to  430  n.c.,  is  associated  for  all  time  AAuth  the 
great  name  of  Pheidias  (500-432  b.c.),  to  Avhom  were  entrusted  the 
important  tasks  of  decorating  the  neAv  temple  of  Athena  on  the 
Acropolis  and  of  executing  the  statue  of  the  goddess  to  be  placed 
therein. 


^ The  former  is  ^iven  on  Plate  xxxii. 


95 


PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 


We  have  now  no  statues  existing  which  can  be  attributed  with 
certainty  to  the  great  master’s  hand  ; even  the  Parthenon  sculptures 
cannot  definitely  be  regarded  as  his  work,  although  they  undoubtedly 
reproduce  his  designs  and  were  executed  under  his  superintendence. 
But  we  are  well  supplied  with  literary  records  of  his  life  and  work, 
and  the  fact  that  he  was  selected  to  make  the  cult-statues  for  the 
two  most  magnificent  temples  of  the  period,  and  that  these  two 
statues,  the  Athena  Parthenos  and  the  Zeus  of  Olympia,  were 
reckoned  the  finest  known  to  the  ancient  world,  leaves  us  no  room  for 
doubt  as  to  his  reputation  with  his  contemporaries,  or  as  to  his  having 
fully  merited  that  reputation. 

Pheidias  was  born  about  the  year  500  b.c.,  and  became,  as  we 
have  seen,  a fellow-pupil  with  Myron  of  Ageladas  of  Argos ; he  is 
also  said  to  have  been  at  first  a painter.  Several  works  are  mentioned 
by  ancient  writers  which  he  seems  to  have  produced  in  his  earlier 
years,  notably  the  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Athena  which  stood 
in  the  open  on  the  Acropolis  and  was  visible  at  a great  distance.  As 
regards  his  later  life,  the  information  that  we  possess  is  considerable, 
but  unfortunately  much  confused.  Three  main  points  can  be  dis- 
entangled with  certainty:  (1)  that  he  worked  for  some  time  at 
Olympia  and  made  the  great  statue  of  Zeus  there ; (2)  that  he  was 
entrusted  by  Pericles  with  the  superintendence  of  the  rising  Parthenon 
and  other  works  on  the  Acropolis,  during  which  time  he  made  the 
Athena  Parthenos ; (3)  that  he  got  into  trouble  through  accusations 
of  peculation  and  sacrilege,  and  was  tried  and  exiled.  It  seems  more 
likely  that  his  work  at  Olympia  came  after  the  Parthenon  was  com- 
pleted and  his  reputation  had  spread  over  Greece  ; his  disgrace  was 
a purely  political  matter,  and  need  not  have  prejudiced  other  states 
against  employing  him.  The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known,  but  we 
are  told  that  he  returned  from  Olympia  to  Athens  and  died  in  prison 
there  about  b.c.  432. 

The  statue  of  Athena  Parthenos,  which  we  may  consider  first  of 
his  works,  was  what  is  known  as  chryselephantine,  or  made  of  gold 
and  ivory  (see  p.  59).  The  latter  material  was  used  for  the  nude  parts 
of  the  figure,  the  gold  for  the  drapery  and  accessories,  the  whole 
being  erected  on  a wooden  core.  Although  the  statue  was  probably 
destroyed  under  the  Byzantine  empire,  one  or  two  copies  have  been 
preserved  which  give  a fair  idea  of  it,  in  spite  of  their  immeasurable 
inferiority.  The  best  is  a statuette  (unfortunately  headless)  found  at 
Patras  in  the  Peloponnese  a few  years  ago ; another  was  found  in 
9G 


. \ \ / 


MK'I'OI'K  I ROM  rHK  IKMIM.I',  OI  /Kl'S,  olOMlM\:  A'l  RAS  AND  IIKRAKI.I> 


PLATE  XX  XI 1 1 


rHK  VAkVAKKION  S I'A'l  T Hri 'I  K Ok  A'l  lIKNA 

(AIUKNS  MUSbUM) 


THE  ATHEXA  PARTHEN08 


Athens  in  1881,  and  a third,  in  an  unfinished  state,  is  also  in  the  xVthens 
Museum.  Besides  these  we  have  a copy  of  the  head  in  a gold  relief 
from  South  Russia,  and  one  of  the  sculptured  shield  of  the  goddess  in 
the  well-known  Strangford  shield  in  the  British  JMuseuin.  On  this 
Pheidias  introduced  portraits  of  himself  and  Pericles,  and  it  was  for 
this  reason  that  he  was  accused  of  sacrilege.  The  second  of  the  three 
statuettes,  known  as  the  Varvakeion,  is  by  far  the  most  complete  and 
detailed,  but  is  unfortunately  a most  inferior  work  of  art,  belonging  to 
the  most  debased  period  of  the  Roman  Empire.^ 

With  the  aid,  however,  of  these  copies  and  of  the  literary  records, 
we  can  reconstruct  with  fair  success  the  magnificent  presentment  of 
the  patron  goddess  of  Athens.  The  goddess  stood  on  a sculptured 
plinth  holding  out  in  her  right  hand  a small  figure  of  Victory  and 
resting  her  left  on  her  sliield,  round  which  twined  her  serpent  Erich- 
thonios.  On  her  head  was  an  elaborate  helmet  with  tri})le  crest,  a 
Sphinx  between  two  Gryphons,  and  on  her  breast  the  aegis  with  its 
iMedusa-head  and  fringe  of  serpents.  She  wore,  over  her  long  chiton 
or  tunic,  the  peplos  or  mantle  which  played  such  an  important  part  in 
her  annual  Panathenaic  festival,  and  on  her  feet  were  ornamented 
sandals.  The  effect  of  the  whole,  with  the  gold  drapery,  the  tinted 
ivory  of  the  face  and  features,  and  the  various  ornamental  attributes, 
must  have  been  gorgeous  in  the  extreme. 

We  hear  of  another  Athena  made  by  Pheidias  about  this  time, 
known  as  the  I^emnian,  of  which  Lucian  speaks  in  terms  of  the 
highest  commendation,  especially  for  the  beauty  of  the  features.  The 
goddess  was  represented  holding  her  helmet  in  her  hand,  a motive 
which  has  been  recognised  on  gems  and  vases,  and  was  intended  to 
present  her  in  a more  peaceful  aspect  than  the  Parthenos.  An  attempt 
has  recently  been  made  to  identify  this  statue  in  existing  examples,- 
but  has  not  met  with  universal  acceptance. 

The  great  statue  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  was,  like  the  Athena,  of  gold 
and  ivory.  In  spite  of  the  description  given  by  Pausanias,  we  know 
even  less  of  it  than  of  the  Athena,  no  copies  having  survived,  except 
some  rough  and  unsatisfactory  reproductions  of  the  head  and  of  the 
whole  figure  on  late  coins  of  Elis.  But  we  know  at  least  that  the  god 
was  seated  on  an  elaborately  carved  and  decorated  throne,  with  a 
sceptre  in  his  left  hand  and  surmounted  by  his  eagle,  and  a Victory 
standing  on  the  right,  and  that  his  face  was  expressive  of  majesty,  yet 

^ See  Plate  xxxiii.,  and  for  the  gold  relief,  Plate  cix. 

2 See  Furtwiingler,  Meisterwerke  d.  gr.  Flastik,  p.  4 If. 


G.  A.— 7 


97 


PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 

of  mild  benignity.  The  sculptor  himself  claimed  to  have  illustrated 
hy  his  conception  the  words  of  Homer : — 

^ Me  spake  aiul  the  dark  brows  bent  for  the  mighty  promise  sealed. 

Waved  round  the  deathless  head  of  his  majesty  full  revealed 
The  ambrosial  locks,  and  mighty  Olympos  rocked  and  reeled.’ 

A.  S.  Way. 

The  opinion  of  Quintilian,  that  the  beauty  and  divine  majesty  of  the 
figure  added  something  to  the  received  religion,  has  already  been 
(pioted  (p.  7).  It  was,  in  fact,  regarded  as  one  of  the  seven 
wonders,  and  as  tlie  greatest  work  in  sculpture,  of  the  ancient  world, 
one  that  exercised  a lofty,  religious  influence  on  all  beholders.  Not 
only  was  the  drapery  richly  embroidered,  hut  the  throne  was  inlaid 
with  various  precious  materials,  and  every  available  space  was  covered 
with  decoration,  the  arms,  legs,  and  supports  taking  the  form  of 
Sphinxes,  Victories,  Graces,  and  Seasons.  Besides  reliefs  along  the 
edges  and  cross-bars,  the  lower  part  was  surrounded  with  a screen 
adorned  with  paintings  by  Pheidias’s  brother  Panainos.  From  the 
description  of  Pausanias  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  statue  was 
approximately  thirty-five  feet  in  height. 

In  estimating  the  work  of  Pheidias  as  a whole,  we  note  first  the 
great  change  that  he  brought  about  in  the  creative  instincts  of  Greek 
art.  He  was  the  first  sculptor  to  produce  ideal  embodiments  of  the 
highest  moral  qualities  of  which  a Greek  could  conceive,  such  as 
majesty,  wisdom,  or  beauty,  and  to  give  a new  meaning  to  the  reli- 
gious aspect  of  each  type  of  divinity,  as  Quintilian  said  of  the  Zeus. 
Secondly,  he  was  the  first  sculptor  who  combined  this  idealism  with  a 
perfect  mastery  over  his  material,  thus  producing  a completer  harmony 
than  was  attained  by  any  before  or  since.  The  sculptor  of  the  archaic 
period,  like  the  pre-llaphaelites  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  often 
full  of  religious  enthusiasm  which  he  could  not  express  ; the  sculptor  of 
the  fourth  or  third  century,  like  Rubens  or  Correggio,  was  a perfect 
master  of  technical  expression,  but  the  religious  aspect  of  his  art  was 
not  necessarily  the  first  consideration ; and  thus,  as  we  find  the  perfect 
combination  in  Raffaelle  the  painter,  so  we  find  it  in  Pheidias  the 
sculptor. 

Although  we  no  longer  possess  any  works  actually  from  the  hand 
of  this  great  sculptor,  there  is  yet  one  group  of  masterpieces  which  will 
always  be  associated  with  him,  namely,  the  architectural  sculptures  of 
the  Parthenon,  the  great  Athenian  temple,  of  which  a description  is 
98 


THE  PARTHENON  METOPES 


elsewhere  given  (p.  40).  We  know  at  all  events  that  the  decoration 
of  the  building  was  carried  on  under  his  direction,  and  we  need  not 
hesitate  to  see  therein  the  evidence  of  the  master-mind,  if  not  of  the 
master-hand. 

The  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  familiarly  known  as  the  Elgin 
marbles — at  least  that  portion  of  them  which  was  brought  to  England 
by  Lord  Elgin  — consist  of  three  distinct  groups  : the  pedimental 
sculptures,  east  and  w^est ; the  metopes  over  the  outer  colonnade  ; and 
the  frieze  running  round  the  upper  part  of  the  cel/a  inside  the  colon- 
nade. AVe  may  observe  in  them  a certain  inequality  of  execution  and 
variation  of  style  wdiich  permit  us  to  deduce  the  chronological  order 
of  their  execution,  and  we  shall  probably  not  be  wrong  in  regarding 
the  metopes  as  the  earliest  of  the  three. 

These  metopes  were  originally  92  in  number,  32  along  each  side  of 
the  building  and  14  at  each  end ; but  excepting  those  of  the  south  side 
they  are  very  badly  preserved,  and  it  is  not  even  possible  to  identify 
the  subjects  of  those  on  the  north  side.  INIany  remain  i?i  situ  on  the 
temple,  and  only  fifteen  were  brought  to  England  by  Lord  Elgin,  all 
from  the  south  side ; but  these  are  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  estimate 
the  artistic  merits  of  the  whole.  The  eastern  appear  to  have  repre- 
sented scenes  from  the  battle  of  the  gods  and  giants,  the  western, 
combats  of  Greeks  and  Amazons ; those  on  the  south  are  almost 
all  devoted  to  combats,  in  single  groups,  of  Lapiths  and  Centaurs. 

Generally  speaking,  considerable  variation  of  style  and  composition 
is  to  be  observed  in  these  metopes  : while  some  are  dull  and  lifeless  or 
somewhat  awkwardly  composed,  others  are  full  of  life  and  vigour.  In 
style  and  modelling,  as  ^vell  as  in  the  composition,  the  same  variety 
presents  itself.  It  is  therefore  clear  that  they  are  the  work  of  several 
hands,  some  of  whom  would  appear  to  be  still  under  the  influence  of 
the  older  ‘ athletic  ’ schools,  though  others  display  considerable  origin- 
ality. The  contrast  between  the  calm  dignity  of  the  Lapiths  and  the 
ferocious  bestiality  of  the  Centaurs  is  in  most  cases  brought  out  Avith 
remarkable  skill ; and  equally  worthy  of  attention  is  the  ingenuity 
Avith  Avhich  the  ungainly  bodies  of  the  Centaurs  are  rendered,  the 
lower  half  in  profile,  the  upper  or  human  half  to  the  front;  ‘their 
movements  are  those  of  a high-bred  horse  under  management.’  The 
structural  necessity  of  erecting  the  entablature  of  the  building  before 
the  cornice  and  pediments  leaA^es  little  room  for  doubt  that  the 
metopes  were  the  first  part  of  the  sculptured  decoration  to  be 
completed. 


99 


PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 


Of  the  two  pedimental  groups  a brief  record  is  made  by  Pausanias, 
who  says  : ‘ A¥hat  is  seen  on  the  pediment  on  entering  the  temple 
relates  to  the  birth  of  Athena ; at  the  back  is  the  contest  of  Poseidon 
and  Athena  for  the  land.’  Fortunately,  however,  we  are  not  forced  to 
be  content  with  the  meagre  description  of  the  old  traveller ; for  though 
the  central  groups  in  each  case  have  practically  disappeared — these 
being  of  course  the  most  important  parts  of  the  composition — there 
yet  remain  the  greater  part  of  the  surrounding  figures  in  each  case,  to 
form  one  of  the  chief  olories  of  the  British  Museum. 

O 

Of  the  eastern  pediment,  that  relating  to  the  birth  of  Athena, 
there  remain  ten  figures  out  of  twelve  in  a more  or  less  perfect  state ; 
and  of  the  western,  tliough  the  figures  are  much  more  fragmentary, 
parts  of  nearly  all  have  been  preserved,  even  of  the  central  figures. 
But  a drawing  made  by  Jacques  Carrey  in  1674,  not  long  before  the 
explosion  which  destroyed  so  much  of  the  western  side,  gives  a fairly 
complete  presentment  of  the  whole. ^ The  central  group  of  the  eastern 
is  hopelessly  lost,  having  probably  been  destroyed  when  the  building 
was  converted  into  a Christian  church  ; and  attempts  at  a reconstruc- 
tion have  necessarily  been  a matter  of  some  difficulty. 

The  eastern  pediment  was  not  only  the  more  important,  being  over 
the  entrance  to  the  temple,  but  also,  on  the  evidence  of  the  existing 
remains,  by  far  the  more  beautiful.  It  seems  to  have  comprised 
twelve  figures,  regarding  the  identification  of  which  endless  theories 
have  been  propounded  ; but  one  or  two  admit  of  no  doubt.  As  regards 
the  central  group,  the  evidence  of  existing  representations  must  of 
course  be  taken  into  account.  Although  a frequent  subject  on  vase- 
paintings,  these  must  nevertheless  be  ignored,  inasmuch  as  they  are  all 
of  an  earlier  date,  and  the  grotesque  manner  in  which  the  goddess  is 
represented  as  a diminutive  figure  emerging  from  the  head  of  Zeus 
cannot  be  associated  with  the  artistic  instincts  of  a Pheidias.  Rather 
we  must  assume  that  he  was  the  creator  of  a new  type,  in  which  the 
goddess  stood  fully  grown  and  fully  armed  before  her  sire,  whose  figure 
may  have  been  balanced  by  that  of  Hephaistos,  who,  according  to 
legend,  assisted  with  his  axe  in  achieving  her  birth. 

Tlie  remaining  figures  form  a series  of  sculptures  unsurpassed  by 
any  in  existence.  The  scene  is  supposed  to  take  place  in  heaven,  the 
time  being  sunrise ; and  therefore  we  have  at  one  end  of  the  pediment 
Helios  (the  Sun)  rising  in  his  four-horse  chariot  from  the  ocean,  at  the 
other  end  Selene  (the  Moon)  or  Nyx  (Night)  descending  in  hers.  Facing 

^ Reproductions  of  Carrey’s  drawings  of  the  two  pediments  are  given  in  Figs.  12,  13. 

100 


j/.vv.v  .'•/,/ rv,/ 


'\  UK  “'I  MKSKl'' 


/'/.AT/-:  .v.vxr 


ruE  (;kOUP  of  “three  fates  from  easi'  iH',i»ime\'I’  of  I’ARiin  xox 


. 13.  The  West  Tehiment.  (Drawing  by  Jacques  Carrey.) 


PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 

Helios  is  the  well-known  reclining  figure  which  has  from  time  imme- 
morial been  known  as  Theseus/  This  name,  however,  rests  on  no 
reasonable  grounds,  and,  having  regard  to  the  localising  tendency  of 
these  two  compositions,  the  suggestion  of  Brunn  that  the  figure  is  a 
personification  of  JNIount  Olympos,  on  which  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun 
are  striking,  has  much  to  recommend  it.  Next  to  this,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  the  noblest  existing  presentation  of  the  nude  male  form, 
are  two  seated  figures  of  women  in  richly-disposed  draperies,  perhaps 
the  Horae  who  guarded  the  gates  of  Olympos.  On  either  side  of  the 
central  group  is  a draped  female  figure  in  motion  ; these  two  have 
generally  been  identified  as  Iris,  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  proclaiming 
the  news  to  the  world,  and  Nike  (Victory).  Finally,  between  the  Nike 
and  the  Selene  or  Nyx  is  an  exquisite  group  of  three  seated  women, 
the  further  of  whom  reclines  on  the  lap  of  tlie  second ; these  are 
usually  known  as  the  Three  Fates,  but  they  have  no  distinctive 
attributes,  and  the  identification  is  not  certain/ 

In  the  western  pediment  the  composition  of  the  central  group  is 
much  more  certain.  Not  only  have  we  the  evidence  of  Carrey’s 
seventeenth-century  drawing  (Fig.  13),  but  also  a vase  of  about 
400  B.c.  on  which  it  appears  to  be  closely  reproduced.  The  strife  of 
Athena  and  Poseidon  was  a peculiarly  Attic  legend,  closely  associated 
with  the  Athenian  Acropolis.  The  story  was  that  both  deities  claimed 
the  land  of  Attica,  and  that  while  Poseidon  produced  a spring  of  salt 
water  in  support  of  his  claim,  Athena  produced  an  olive-tree : both 
these  symbols  were  carefully  preserved  in  the  Erechtheion.  The 
pediment  then  represented  Athena  in  the  act  of  producing  the  olive- 
tree,  while  Poseidon,  whose  spring  was  also  represented,  started  back 
in  amazement.  This  central  group  was  bounded  on  either  side  by 
the  four-horse  chariots  of  the  two  combatants,  driven  respectively  by 
Victory  and  by  Amphitrite,  the  sea-god’s  consort.  The  attempts  at 
identifying  the  rest  of  the  figures  have  been  endless,  but  it  is  most 
probable  that  they  are  all  either  local  divinities  and  heroes,  or  else 
mere  local  personifications,  such  as  river-gods,  indicating  the  scene 
of  action,  like  the  Olympos,  At  all  events  the  recumbent  male 
figures  at  either  end  have  generally  been  named  after  the  two  rivers 
of  Athens,  the  Kephissos  and  the  Ilissos,  next  to  one  of  whom 
reclines  the  spring-nymph  Kallirrhoe.^ 

^ See  Plate  xxxiv.  2 §gg  l>late  xxxv.  for  two  of  these  figures. 

2 It  is  not  certain  which  of  these  two  figures  is  Ilissos,  and  which  Kephissos  ; but  the  former 
would  be  more  appropriately  placed  next  to  Kallirrhoe. 

102 


I i 4 '^  ^ \ . \ V ! 


nc»KSK.MKN  l'Kt)M  1 H K PAK'IHKNON  IKIK/K 


I'WO  SLAI’.S  I'KOM  KAS'I'  I'RIl^/K  OF  rHI-:  I’AK'I'H  i:X(  )\  : 
I.  ClvN  I RAF  OROl'R.  l’.  (IROUR  OF  l>IO  I'll  S 


THE  PARTHENON  PEDIMENTS 


In  considering  these  pediments  from  the  artistic  point  of  view,  both 
the  composition  and  the  style  call  for  attention.  In  the  balance  of  the 
figures  there  is  a great  advance  on  what  we  have  already  seen  at 
Olympia ; although  in  some  respects  less  exact,  it  is  more  subtle, 
avoiding  monotony  by  variations  of  detail,  while  yet  retaining  a 
general  correspondence  of  figure  to  figure.  This  is  perhaps  best  seen 
in  the  two  intermediate  groups  of  figures  of  the  eastern  pediment ; on 
the  left  side  we  have  one  reclining  separate  figure  and  two  seated 
together,  but  on  the  right  the  reclining  figure  is  grouped  with  the 
nearest  seated  one.  Another  notable  feature  of  this  pediment  is  the 
manner  in  which  the  side  figures  are  supposed  to  be  affected  by  the 
great  event  taking  place  in  the  centre ; those  nearest  to  the  figures  of 
Iris  and  Victory  appear  to  listen  with  interest  to  the  announcement  of 
the  news,  the  two  adjoining  scarcely  turn  their  heads,  and  the  two 
reclining  figures  are  not  as  yet  affected  at  all. 

In  regard  to  the  style,  Ave  find  here  the  attainment  of  absolute 
perfection  in  the  rendering  of  nude  forms,  as  in  the  ‘ Theseus  ’ and 
‘ Ilissos,’  and  of  drapery,  as  in  the  group  of  the  ‘ Three  Fates.’  The 
nude  forms  stand  equidistant  from  the  Aegina  pediments  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles  (see  p.  117)  on  the  other,  free  from 
the  severity  and  stiffness  of  the  one,  and  from  the  softness  of  the  other; 
they  are  both  round  and  firm,  broad  yet  free  from  exaggeration.  The 
draperies  are  unconventional,  but  not  accidental,  as  they  often  are  in 
the  Olympia  pediments  ; the  grooves  are  Avorked  deep,  Avith  sharp 
edges,  yet  there  is  no  hardness,  and  the  general  effect  is  one  of  perfect 
harmony  and  pleasing  richness.  Nor  must  Ave  omit  to  mention  here 
the  admirable  modelling  of  the  horses’  heads,  especially  those  of  Selene 
(or  Nyx)  and  Helios. 

The  question  Avhether  Ave  may  regard  these  sculptures  as  the  Avork, 
wholly  or  in  part,  of  Pheidias,  is,  of  course,  difficult  to  decide.  That 
the  general  design  Avas  his  can  hardly  be  doubted,  and  it  is  clear  that 
his  influence  is  here  far  greater  than  in  the  metopes ; but  though  he 
must  have  devoted  to  them  much  general  supervision,  it  is  hardly  con- 
ceivable that  while  at  work  on  his  great  statue  of  Athena  he  can  have 
found  sufficient  time  to  execute  so  great  a Avork  as  these  Avith  his  oavii 
hand. 

The  frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  as  already  indicated,  ran  round  the  top 
of  the  outer  Avail  of  the  ccUa,  in  a series  of  slabs  sculptured  in  Ioav 
relief;  the  greater  part  of  it  is  noAv  in  the  British  INIuseum,  but  the 
western  frieze  still  remains  in  situ,  and  other  fragments  are  elseAvhere. 

io;3 


PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 

Accustomed  as  we  are  to  view  it  with  ease  almost  on  the  level  of  the 
eye,  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  magnificent  work  must  have 
been  less  easily  visible  while  the  temple  remained  perfect,  owing  to  its 
height  from  the  ground  and  the  rows  of  eolumns  close  in  front  of  it. 
Hut  it  has  been  observed  tliat  tlie  relief  is  generally  higher  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  slabs  than  in  the  lower,  and  it  is  probable  that  a certain 
amount  of  light  was  reflected  on  to  it  from  the  marble  pavement. 

The  subject  represented  is  the  Panathenaic  procession,  a feature  of 
the  games  held  every  fourth  year  specially  in  honour  of  Athena.  In 
this  procession  the  i)cplos,  or  sacred  robe  of  the  goddess,  was  solemnly 
brought — woven  anew  on  each  occasion — to  adorn  her  statue.  It  was 
aecompanied  by  offerings  and  victims  for  sacrifice,  under  the  guidance 
of  the  ehief  magistrates  and  a select  concourse  of  young  men  and 
maidens.  In  the  frieze  the  procession  is  eonceived  as  starting  from  the 
western  side,  which  is  occupied  by  knights  making  ready  themselves 
and  their  horses,  and  advancing  along  the  north  and  south  sides  till 
the  two  lines  converge  upon  the  east.^  Here,  before  the  culminating 
point  is  reached  in  the  central  group,  the  eontinuity  is  broken  by  two 
groups  of  seated  deities,  chiefly  of  the  inner  Olympian  circle,  whose 
presence  in  the  line  of  the  procession  may  at  first  sight  seem  strange. 
But  it  is  possible  that,  as  the  late  A.  S.  Murray  suggested,  they  are,  in 
accordance  with  an  artistic  convention,  really  to  be  conceived  as  in  the 
background,  presiding  over  the  scene.  To  represent  this  with  the 
correct  perspective  might  have  been  easy  in  a picture,  at  least  in 
modern  art,  but  the  Greeks  had  not  yet  attained  to  such  a knowledge 
of  perspective  in  painting, “ and  therefore,  in  sculpture,  the  task  was 
quite  beyond  even  a Pheidias. 

On  the  two  long  sides  the  composition  of  the  processions  is  as 
follows : Next  to  the  group  of  Knights  still  engaged  in  preparation 
follow  companies  of  the  same  already  on  their  way,  preceded  by  armed 
warriors  in  chariots ; in  front  of  these  are  bodies  of  men  in  various 
capacities,  and  then  a series  of  victims  led  up  for  sacrifice,  cows  on  the 
south  side,  on  the  north  both  cows  and  sheep.  As  the  procession  turns 
the  eastern  corners  we  see  the  maidens  with  their  sacrificial  vessels  and 
other  insignia,  such  as  chairs,  advancing  to  meet  the  archons  and  other 
officials.  The  two  groups  of  deities,  seven  figures  on  either  side, 


^ Plate  XXXVI.  jirives  two  slabs  from  the  procession  of  knights. 

^ In  contemporary  vase-paintings  the  presence  of  deities  is  similarly  indicated  ; but  on  those 
of  the  succeeding  age  the  gods  are  usually  ]>laced  on  a line  above  the  main  design,  as  spectators 
from  above. 

104 


THE  FRIEZE  OF  THE  PARTHENON 


cannot  all  be  identified  with  absolute  certainty,  but  the  names  most 
generally  given  are  these  (from  corner  to  centre)  : on  the  left,  Hermes, 
Apollo,  Artemis,  Ares,  Iris,  Hera,  and  Zeus  ; on  the  right.  Aphrodite 
with  Eros,  Demeter,  Dionysos,  Poseidon,  Hephaistos,  and  Athena, 
who  with  Zeus  holds  the  post  of  honour/ 

The  central  group’  has  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion,  as  there 
is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  action  represented.  The  main  figure  is 
that  of  a priest  folding  a large  garment  or  piece  of  drapery  with  the 
assistance  of  a boy ; but  thougli  it  is  obvious  that  the  i)cpIos  of  the 
goddess  must  be  intended,  it  is  not  equally  clear  why  it  should  be 
folded  up.  Perhaps  the  best  explanation  is  that  the  priest  is  folding 
up  and  putting  away  the  old  peplos  preparatory  to  the  reception  of  the 
new  one ; but  it  is  certainly  curious  that  the  latter  should  not  appear 
at  all  on  the  frieze. 

Hardly  less  than  the  pediments,  the  frieze  is  entitled  to  be  regarded 
as  the  conception  of  the  master-mind  of  Pheidias,  whose  genius  is 
equally  apparent  in  style  and  composition,  though  the  same  objection 
applies,  that  he  can  hardly  have  been  responsible  for  its  execution  with 
his  own  hand.  At  all  events  the  unity  of  the  design  is  unmistakable, 
a unity  which  is  yet  full  of  variety  in  the  individual  figures  with  their 
differences  of  pose  and  action,  the  whole  presenting  a marvellous  com- 
bination of  dignified  repose,  as  in  the  group  of  deities,  and  rapid  action, 
as  in  the  procession  of  horsemen.  Every  figure  in  the  frieze  will  repay 
close  study ; and  yet  a no  less  satisfactory  result  may  be  gained  if  it  is 
only  regarded  as  a whole,  as  it  is  possible  to  do  in  the  Elgin  Room  of 
the  British  iMuseum,  with  the  arrangement  there  adopted.  The 
technical  skill  of  the  craftsman  is  mainly  exhibited  in  the  skilful 
manner  in  which  the  low  relief  is  treated,  an  appearance  of  round- 
ness being  given  to  the  figures  by  a slight  inclination  of  the  surface 
of  the  reliefs.  Not  only  in  vigour  and  majesty,  but  also  in  deli- 
cacy and  grace,  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  is  unequalled  as  a work 
of  art. 

The  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century  was  marked  at  Athens  by  the 
erection  and  adornment  of  other  beautiful  buildings  besides  the  Par- 
thenon ; these  are  described  in  our  chapter  on  Architecture,  but  their 
sculptured  decoration  also  demands  attention.  Chief  among  them  is 
the  so-called  Theseion,  which  was  originally  thought  to  be  the  building 
erected  to  receive  the  bones  of  the  Attic  hero  Theseus  in  4G9  i?.c. 

^ The  j?roup  in  Plate  xxxvii.  (upper  figure),  represents  the  deities  on  tlie  extreme  riglit. 

“ See  ibid.,  lower  figure. 


10.5 


PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 


But  the  true  dedication  of  the  building  is  very  doubtful/  and  at  all 
events  the  sculpture  does  not  appear  to  be  earlier  in  date  than  that  of 
the  Parthenon.  This  consists  of  two  friezes,  eastern  and  western,  and 
a series  of  eighteen  metopes,  ten  on  the  east  front,  and  four  adjoining 
on  each  side.  The  rest  of  the  metopes  may  have  been  painted,  but 
were  certainly  never  sculptured.  In  style  they  elosely  suggest  those 
of  the  Parthenon  ; the  subjects  are  partly  from  the  Labours  of  Herakles 
(as  at  Olympia),  partly  from  those  of  Theseus.  Clearly  there  is  no 
indication  of  any  special  prominence  being  given  to  the  latter  hero 
either  in  the  metopes,  or,  as  we  shall  see,  in  the  friezes.  Unfortunately 
the  metopes  have  suffered  greatly  from  exposure — they  have  always 
remained  in  situ — and  we  can  learn  more  about  them  from  the  draw- 
ings made  by  eighteenth -century  travellers  than  from  the  existing 
remains.  The  friezes  also  recall  the  style  of  the  Parthenon  metopes, 
and  the  subject  of  the  western  is  the  same,  a battle  of  Greeks  and 
Centaurs.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  artist  must  have  been  one 
used  to  the  designing  of  metopes,  for  he  has  unconsciously  introduced  a 
similar  arrangement  into  his  frieze,  breaking  the  figures  up  into  distinct 
isolated  groups.  The  subject  of  the  eastern  frieze  has  been  disputed, 
but  it  apparently  represents  a combat  of  (Greeks  with  some  kind  of 
barbarians,  with  a group  of  deities  as  spectators  in  the  background. 

The  little  temple  of  Athena  Nike  on  the  Acropolis  appears  to  have 
been  erected  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  but  its  sculptured 
decoration  was  not  added  till  a later  date.  The  main  frieze  of  the 
building,  which,  the  architecture  being  Ionic,  takes  the  place  of  the 
Doric  metopes,  represents  a combat  of  Greeks  and  barbarians,  with 
deities  as  spectators,  like  that  of  the  Theseion.  Here,  however,  the 
subject  is  most  probably  to  be  identified  as  having  reference  to  the 
war  between  Greece  and  Persia,  perhaps  to  the  battle  of  Plataea  in  479 
B.c.  Round  the  platform  on  which  the  temple  stood  was  a balustrade 
decorated  with  a seated  figure  of  Athena  and  a series  of  figures  of 
Victory,  all  in  relief.  The  latter,  who  are  represented  as  erecting 
trophies,  sacrificing  oxen,  and  in  other  poses,  are  exceedingly  beautiful 
figures,  full  of  grace,  and  the  treatment  of  the  drapery  is  truly  exqui- 
site. One  figure,  of  a Victory  raising  one  foot  to  fasten  her  sandal, 
stands  out  above  the  rest  in  this  respect,  with  its  lovely  reproduction 
of  draperies  falling  in  rich  and  graceful  folds,  yet  so  transparent  that 
every  outline  of  the  form  beneath  is  revealed." 

^ The  names  now  most  generally  favoured  are  those  of  Hephaistos  and  Apollo  Patroos. 

2 See  Plate  xxxviii. 

100 


/ / r 


. \ / III 


CARNA'Iin  I ROM  riil-  M<  l>(  I II  1 1 1- loN 

(I'.KI  I iSlI  Ml  SKL  M ) 


I'LAIE  .\XXIX 


VKM'OKV  FROM  THK  l!.\  1 AISTK AD K (^F  I'HF  N1K.F  I'KMIM,!:,  AI'HKNS 


THE  ERECHTHEION 


The  third  fifth-century  temple  on  the  Acropolis,  of  which  remains 
exist,  is  the  Erectheion,  completed  in  409  n.c.  Its  frieze  is  interesting 
rather  from  its  technique  than  in  other  res])ects,  being  very  frag- 
mentary ; the  figures  are  carved  in  Pentelic  marble  on  a background 
of  black  stone.  Of  more  importance  from  the  artistic  point  of  view 
are  the  six  figures  of  Caryatides  which  supported  the  entablatures  of 
the  porch  (see  p.  48)/  The  question  of  the  aesthetic  appropriateness 
of  substituting  human  figures  for  architectural  supports  has  been  much 
discussed,  and  the  principle  has  been  condemned  both  by  Ruskin  and 
the  architect  Fergusson.  But  regarding  the  figures  ajiart  from  their 
surroundings,  there  can  be  no  question  of  their  beauty  and  dignity, 
combining  strength  and  grace,  and  of  the  effective  treatment  of  the 
drapery.  It  will  be  noticed  that  each  has  the  knee  nearest  to  the 
middle  of  the  building  bent,  and  rests  the  weight  on  the  outer  leg — a 
contrivance  which  gives  an  appearance  of  stability  to  the  whole,  and 
illustrates  the  Greek  instinct  for  obtaining  the  right  effect  by  simple 
means. 

Several  names  of  sculptors  are  given  by  ancient  writers  as  repre- 
senting the  Attic  schools  of  the  fifth  century,  and  some  of  these  are 
described  as  pupils  of  Pheidias.  The  names  of  these  are  Agorakritos, 
Alkamenes,  Kolotes,  and  Theokosmos.  But  for  the  most  part  these 
sculptors  are  mere  names  to  us,  and  even  when  the  subjects  of  their 
works  are  put  on  record,  we  are  at  a loss  to  associate  them  with  any 
existing  specimens  of  Greek  art. 

Agorakritos  of  Paros,  said  to  have  been  Pheidias’s  favourite  pupil, 
was  the  author  of  a famous  statue  of  Nemesis  (Vengeance)  in  the 
temple  of  that  goddess  at  Rhamnus  in  Attica.  He  appears  to  have 
copied  his  master’s  style  so  successfully  that  many  ancient  cities  were 
unable  to  distinguish  between  them.  A few  fragments  of  this  statue 
have  been  preserved,  and  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

We  have  already  had  occasion  to  speak  of  Alkamenes  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Olympia  pediments,  his  share  in  the  production  of  which 
has  been  seen  to  be  somewhat  doubtful.  There  are,  however,  a 
number  of  works  of  considerable  fame  in  antiquity  which  were  attri- 
buted to  his  hand.  Of  these  the  most  important  was  the  Aphrodite 
in  the  Gardens,  which  was  very  highly  praised  by  lAician,  who  con- 
ceived it  as  furnishintj  the  hands  and  face  for  his  ideal  statue.  His 
artistic  career  was  apparently  a long  one,  as  he  is  known  to  have  been 
at  work  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  Quintilian  places  him  on  a 

^ Plate  XXXIX.  gives  the  one  in  the  British  Museum. 


107 


PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 


level  with  Plieidias  for  the  nobility  of  his  productions,  and  other 
writers  are  no  less  laudatory. 

Hitherto  our  knowledge  of  Alkamenes  rested  entirely  on  literary 
evidence,  but  a recent  discovery  has  placed  us  in  a much  more  favour- 
able position  for  judging  of  the  character  of  his  work.  This  is  a terminal 
figure  of  a bearded  Hermes,  found  in  the  German  excavations  at  Per- 
gamon  in  1903-4,  which  bears  the  inscription:  ‘You  shall  see  the 

exceeding  fair  statue  of  Alkamenes,  the  Hermes  at  the  Gate.’  ^ In  itself 
a late  Roman  Avork,  it  is  clearly  a faithful  copy  of  the  original  by  Alka- 
menes, which,  however,  does  not  appear  among  his  recorded  works. 
But  Ave  knoAv  that  a Hermes  Propylaios  Avas  set  up  on  the  Acropolis 
at  Athens  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  The  figure  preserves  a 
someAvhat  archaic  character,  especially  in  the  treatment  of  the  hair 
in  roAvs  of  formal  curls,  though  it  is  possible  that  the  religious 
character  of  such  a statue  might  account  for  this  conservatAe 
feature.  Hence  it  is  not  easy  to  date  from  the  style,  and  scholars 
are  not  as  yet  agreed  Avliether  it  represents  Alkamenes’  earlier  or  later 
manner.^ 

His  supposed  colleague  at  Olympia,  Paionios  of  JMende,  we  are 
fortunate  enough  to  be  able  to  associate  Avith  an  existing  original  Avork, 
found  there  i/i  situ.  Although  a native  of  Northern  Greece,  he  must 
haA’e  spent  most  of  his  artistic  life  at  Olympia,  as  this  statue  is  con- 
siderably later  than  the  pedimental  sculptures.  It  is  not  only  men- 
tioned by  Pausanias,  but  the  actual  base  Avith  its  dedicatory  inscription 
has  also  been  preseiwed.  It  is  a statue  of  Nike  (Victory),  placed  on  a 
high  triangular  pedestal,  and  represented  as  floating  doAvn  to  earth. 
The  occasion  of  its  erection  Avas  after  a victory  of  the  IMessenians  and 
Naupactians  over  Sparta,  probably  Avith  reference  to  the  battle  of 
Sphakteria  in  424  b.c.  The  inscription  also  states  that  Paionios  made 
the  a/iToteria  or  ornaments  on  the  gable  of  the  temple  of  Zeus,  Avhich 
also  Avere  figures  of  Victory.  The  statue  unfortunately  is  in  a sadly 
mutilated  condition,  but  the  torso  is  entire,  and  in  the  SAveeping 
draperies  there  is,  in  spite  of  a certain  flabbiness,  a very  pleasing 
presentment  of  the  effect  of  rapid  motion.^ 

The  sculptor  Kresilas,  a Cretan,  has  some  claim  to  be  reckoned  as 

^ See  Plate  xl. 

2 It  was  of  the  same  class  as  the  Herniae  which  stood  at  every  door  in  Athens  and  were  greatly 
venerated.  Hence  the  indignation  at  their  mutilation  in  the  time  of  Alcibiades. 

^ See  Sitsunyfiherichte  d.  k.  prewsu.  Akad.  d.  Wisserifich.  11)04,  p.  01)  ; Athcn.  Mittheil.  1004, 
pis.  18-21,  pp,  170,  208  ; Jahrbiu'h  d.  arch.  In.st.  1004,  p.  22. 

^ See  Plate  xi.i. 

108 


FLATE  XL 


THK  HKRMKS  I■RO|>^  I,  AIOS  OF  ALKAM  KN  ICs,  :*FOr  N 1 > A'l  I’KRC.AMON,  AXD  IHK  “ Mol’RN  I NC.  AllllAVA'  (ATHKXS  MUSEUM) 


niK  NIKK  OF  FAIONIOS 

(uI.YMriA  MUSF.L’M) 


ATHENIAN  FIFTH-CENTURY  SCULPTORS 

an  Athenian  artist,  and  his  recorded  Avorks  certainly  connect  him  Avith 
Athens.  They  include  a portrait  of  Pericles,  of  Avhich  an  admirable 
replica  exists  in  the  Tlritish  Museum^;  it  is  someAAdiat  idealised  in  con- 
ception, but  simple  and  noble  in  treatment.  There  Avas  also  a statue 
of  a AA^ounded  man  on  the  point  of  death,  Avhich  may  be  the  same  as 
one  described  by  Pausanias  of  the  Athenian  general  13iitrephes.  He 
seems  to  liaAx  been  represented  in  a staggering  position,  transfixed 
Avith  arroAA^s  ; the  statue  being  of  bronze,  more  scope  aa  as  afforded  for  a 
contorted  attitude. 

Another  Athenian,  Kallimachos,  \vas  nicknamed  catafcwitcc/inos,  or 
‘ the  Higgler,’  one  aa  ho  frittered  aAvay  his  skill  oa  er  superfluous  details, 
all  his  Avork  being  OAxrdone  and  affected.  He  is  also  spoken  of  as  the 
maker  of  a remarkable  lamp  in  the  Erechtheion,  and  as  the  inventor  of 
a running  drill  for  cutting  deep  lines  and  folds  of  drapery ; and  Avas 
traditionally  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  Corinthian  capital  (see  J3. 
50).  Praxias,  a pupil  of  Kalamis,  designed  and  began  the  sculptures 
of  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  of  Avhich  Ave  only  knoAv  that  in  the 
eastern  pediment  Avere  the  Delphic  deities,  Apollo,  Artemis,  and 
Leto,  Avith  the  Pluses,  and  in  the  Avestern,  Dionysos  and  Bacchanals. 
The  date  Avould  hardly  be  later  than  450  n.c.  Lykios,  the  son  and 
pupil  of  Myron,  Avas  a fruitful  sculptor,  and  made  several  bronze 
statues  of  a class  Avhich  has  been  described  as  ‘ religious  genre^'  that 
is,  of  boys  performing  various  offices  in  connection  Avith  the  service  of 
a temple.  Strongylion,  a little-knoAvn  sculptor,  Avas  especially  skilled 
in  horses  and  bulls,  and  made  a colossal  bronze  representation  of  the 
Avooden  horse  of  Troy.  He  also  created  the  type  of  Artemis  familiar 
in  later  Greek  art. 

In  the  history  of  Greek  sculpture  during  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
century  one  name  stands  out  as  almost  riA^alling  that  of  Pheidias ; 
Avhat  the  latter  Avas  to  the  Athenian  schools  of  art,  Polykleitos  Avas 
to  that  of  Argos.  The  earlier  history  of  the  school  has  already  been 
touched  upon,  and  AA^e  have  seen  that,  like  the  other  Dorian  schools, 
it  Avas  ahvays  pre-eminent  for  its  representations  of  athletes.  In 
this  respect  Polykleitos  not  only  upheld  but  perfected  the  ancient 
traditions. 

A native  of  Sikyon,  he  liAxd  and  Av^orked  at  Argos ; the  time  of  his 
activity  being  about  440  to  410  b.c.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a pupil 

^ Plate  xLii.,  Fig.  1 ; the  accompanying  bust  of  Alexander  is  grouped  with  this  to  show  the 
different  conception  of  portraiture  prevailing  in  the  age  of  that  King,  individualism  replacing 
idealism  (see  p.  124). 


109 


PHEIDIAS  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 

of  the  Argive  Ageladas  (see  p.  84),  which,  in  spite  of  the  difference 
of  dates,  is  not  impossible.  13ut  he  was  certainly  younger  than 
Pheidias,  wlio,  as  Pliny  says,  ‘opened  the  door  to  the  knowledge 
which  Polykleitos  accpiired  and  perfected.’  His  greatest  work  was 
the  temple-statue  of  Hera  for  her  temple  near  Argos,  which  was 
rebuilt  about  423  e.c.,  a chryselephantine  work  of  which  rough  copies 
appear  on  coins  of  Argos,  and  which  was  considered  a worthy  counter- 
part to  Plieidias’  Zeus.  She  was  represented  on  her  throne,  holding  a 
pomegranate  (as  emblem  of  fertility),  and  a sceptre  surmounted  by 
a cuckoo  (as  emblem  of  marriage),  and  wearing  an  ornamental  crown. 
The  head  known  as  tlie  Farnese  Hera  has  been  thought  to  be  a copy 
from  this  statue. 

But  the  fame  of  Polykleitos  rests  rather  on  his  statues  of  heroic 
figures  and  athletes,  more  particularly  the  latter.  He  worked 
almost  exclusively  in  bronze,  a material  better  suited  for  the  latter 
class  of  subject,  as  was  also  recognised  by  JMyron  and  Lysippos. 
Among  the  former  the  most  famous  was  a wounded  Amazon,  which, 
according  to  report,  was  made  in  competition  with  Pheidias  and 
Kresilas  for  the  temple  at  Ephesus,  our  sculptor  being  adjudged  the 
first  prize.  However  this  may  be,  there  are  in  existence  several  figures 
of  Amazons,  which  may  be  recognised  as  replicas  of  fifth-century 
types,  even  if  the  originals  were  not  those  of  the  tradition.  They 
have  been  classified  under  three  main  types,  the  first  of  which  is 
clearly  a wounded  Amazon,  and  equally  clearly  the  most  Polycleitan. 
It  presents  many  parallels  of  style  with  some  of  his  best  known 
works.  In  this  type  the  Amazon  leans  on  a pillar  with  the  right  hand 
over  the  head,  the  wound  being  indicated  on  her  right  breast,  and  less 
directly  by  the  expression  of  her  face. 

In  the  second  type  the  Amazon  stands  with  right  arm  raised, 
having  probably  held  a spear,  while  with  her  left  she  holds  her  tunic 
away  from  a similar  wound.  The  third  type  is  not  wounded,  but  she 
holds  a spear  or  bow  in  both  hands.  Replicas  of  the  first  type  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  collections  at  Lansdowne  House  and  Petworth,  one 
of  the  second  in  the  British  Museum.  The  peculiarly  Polycleitan 
characteristics  of  the  first  type  are  the  general  squareness  of  the 
figure,  with  its  athletic,  almost  virile  proportions ; the  absence  of  any 
strong  emotion  or  expression  of  suffering ; and  the  pose  with  all  the 
weight  on  one  foot.  Whether  the  two  other  types  can  be  attri- 
buted to  the  sculptors  who  competed  with  Polykleitos  is  open  to 
question. 

110 


PLAl'E  XLii 


THK  l)|  ADl'.MKNOS  AN’I)  DOKVPHOROS  OF  POl.V  k I ,KIT(  )S 


POLYKLEITOS 


But  the  really  typical  works  of  this  sculptor  are  his  two  famous 
statues  of  athletes,  the  Diadumenos,  or  victorious  athlete  binding 
his  hair  with  a fillet,  and  the  Doryphoros  or  spear-bearer.  In  these 
two  typical  figures  he  laid  down  a law  of  human  proportions,  and  the 
latter  was  actually  known  as  the  Canon,  or  standard  of  form.  Pliny 
describes  them  as  a boyish  young  man  and  a manly  boy.  Of  both 
there  exist  undoubted  replicas,^  mostly  not  earlier  than  the  Graeco- 
Roman  period,  though  a Diadumenos  head  in  the  British  Museum 
can  hardly  be  much  later  in  date  than  the  original.  Apart  from  the 
fact  that  bronze  necessarily  loses  much  of  its  character  when  translated 
into  marble,  we  must  make  considerable  allowance  for  the  tendency 
of  the  copyist  to  exaggerate  and  obscure  the  original  forms,  and  some 
of  the  copies  are  decidedly  heavy  and  mechanical.  Nevertheless  we 
can  trace  in  these  two  figures  the  delineation  of  a fully-developed 
young  athlete,  whose  muscles  are  rendered  with  a vigour  and  accuracy 
to  which  no  other  sculptor  attained. 

But  with  all  his  excellences  Polykleitos  is  not  a satisfying  artist, 
and  there  is  a lack  of  ‘ soul  ’ and  ideality  about  his  works  which  impels 
us  to  regard  him  as  an  academic  sculptor,  in  no  sense  a genius.  In 
viewing  the  range  of  his  subjects  as  a whole,  we  note  that  his  tendency 
is  to  select  figures  which  are  the  fullest  expression  of  physical  develop- 
ment. With  the  exception  of  the  Hera,  which  stands  by  itself,  he 
avoids  the  representation  of  the  greater  gods  or  of  typical  feminine 
figures  ; anything  like  grace  or  sentiment,  or  deep  spiritual  qualities, 
must  not  be  looked  for  in  his  work.  On  the  other  hand,  we  must  not 
be  blind  to  his  merits.  Quintilian  commends  his  carefulness  in  detail, 
and  the  ‘ finish ' of  his  statues,  which  he  was  able  to  combine  with 
massiveness  and  breadth  of  style. 

Numerous  pupils  of  his  are  mentioned  by  name,  but  none  can  be 
certainly  associated  with  extant  works.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
not  a few  small  bronze  statuettes  in  our  museums  which  may  be 
described  as  ‘ of  Polycleitan  style,’  and  this  we  should  naturally  expect 
in  the  case  of  a sculptor  who  worked  so  largely  in  bronze.  In 
particular  there  is  one  in  the  British  iMuseum  where  the  Doryphoros 
type  has  been  adopted  for  Zeus.“ 

There  remains  for  consideration  among  existing  fifth-century 
sculptures  the  decoration  of  some  architectural  monuments  in  various 


1 See  Plate  xliii. 

2 Furtwangler,  Meisterwerke,  p.  519. 


HI 


PHEIDIA8  AND  HI8  C O N TE M P 0 R A R I E 8 

parts  of  the  Greek  world.  Chief  among  them  are  the  sculptures  of 
the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Phigaleia  (Bassae)  in  Arcadia,  erected  by 
Iktinos,  the  architect  of  the  Parthenon.  The  whole  desififn  of  the 
temple  is  markedly  original  (see  p.  39),  and  among  other  new  features 
the  frieze  is  not  outside  but  inside  the  cella  of  the  building.  Its 
orientation  Avas  north  and  south,  and  the  statue  of  the  god  was  placed 
in  the  soutli-west  angle  of  the  cella,  facing  a door  in  the  east  side. 
The  ])rincipal  figures  of  the  frieze  were  immediately  above  this  statue, 
and  form  the  point  of  division  between  its  two  subjects,  a battle  of 
Greeks  and  Amazons,  and  a battle  of  Greeks  and  Centaurs,  but  the 
two  deities  are  represented  as  taking  part  in  the  former  scene.  These 
sculptures  were  excavated  by  Cockerell  in  1811,  and  were  acquired 
by  the  British  ^luseum. 

The  whole  frieze,  though  far  inferior  in  style  and  merit  to  that 
of  the  Parthenon,  is  full  of  interest  and  originality,  especially  in  the 
treatment  of  the  drapery ; but  there  are  a certain  restlessness  and 
exaggerated  passion  about  the  groups  Avhich  betoken  a departure 
from  the  ideas  of  Pheidias,  and  herald  the  incoming  of  those  Avhich 
characterise  fourth-century  sculpture.  Although  the  original  concep- 
tion may  be  due  to  an  Athenian  artist,  the  work  must  be  that  of 
a local  school  of  sculptors,  such  as  we  have  met  with  at  Olympia. 
The  same  provincial  characteristics  have  been  observed  in  the  remains 
of  sculpture  from  the  recently-excavated  Heraion  at  Argos,  in  Avhich 
also  a certain  amount  of  Attic  influence  is  apparent. 

Other  monuments  are  to  be  sought  for  in  Lycia,  the  south-western 
province  of  Asia  Minor,  which,  as  we  have  already  seen  in  the 
‘Harpy’  tomb  (p.  78),  was  peculiarly  receptive  of  the  influences  of 
true  Greek  art,  although  in  many  respects  a semi-barbarous  country. 
At  Gjolbaschi  (Trysa)  there  is  a sepulchral  monument  or  Jicroon, 
decorated  in  semi-Oriental  fashion  with  a series  of  friezes  representing 
in  relief  quite  a gallery  of  mythological  subjects.  The  compositions 
are  for  the  most  part  very  pictorial  in  character,  and  it  is  often  easier 
to  find  their  parallels  in  Attie  vase-paintings  than  in  sculpture.  It 
has  been  suggested  tiiat  the  influence  of  the  great  painter  Polygnotos 
is  the  explanation  of  this  characteristic ; he  was  an  artist  of  Ionian 
origin,  and  the  style  of  the  Harpy  monument  shoAVS  that  it  Avas  Ionian 
influence  which  more  especially  made  itself  felt  in  Lycia.  The  Nereid 
monument  from  Xanthos,  the  sculptures  from  Avhich  are  noAV  in  the 
British  Museum,  is  regarded  by  some  authorities  as  a fifth-century 
work  ; but  though  undoubtedly  under  the  influence  of  that  period, 
112 


FIFTH-CENTURY  SCULPTURE 

it  is  more  conveniently  dealt  with  among  the  works  of  the  fourth 
century. 

Returning  for  a moment  to  Athens,  we  must  deal  briefly  with  one 
or  two  works  in  which  the  spirit,  if  not  the  influence,  of  Pheidias  is 
more  or  less  directly  visible.  The  sculptured  tombstones  in  which 
this  spirit  is  perhaps  seen  at  its  best  are  more  properly  discussed 
among  works  of  fourth-century  art ; but  there  are  two  reliefs  of  a 
votive  character  which,  from  their  beauty  and  general  interest,  demand 
a few  words.  The  first  of  these  is  a relief  found  on  the  Acropolis, 
representing  Athena  with  bent  head,  leaning  on  a spear,  in  the  attitude 
of  a mourner.^  Before  her  is  a pillar  or  tombstone,  and  it  is  supposed 
that  she  is  mourning  over  warriors  fallen  in  battle.  The  date  is  about 
430  B.C.,  the  style  simple  and  severe,  with  a stiffness  in  the  drapery 
which  at  first  suggests  an  earlier  date,  but  it  is  both  pleasing  and 
impressive.  The  other  is  a dedicatory  tablet  from  Eleusis,  repre- 
senting Demeter  and  Persephone  with  the  boy  Triptolemos.  In  the 
same  simple  and  severe  style,  with  restrained  and  almost  formal  treat- 
ment of  the  drapery,  it  is  probably  of  the  same  date  as  the  other. 
Professor  Ernest  Gardner  regards  it  as  an  example  of  the  graceful 
ornateness  of  early  Attic  art  overpowered  by  a reaction  towards 
severe  nobility,  Pheidias  representing  the  golden  mean  between  the 
two  tendencies. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  fifth-century  sculpture  are  breadth  of 
style  and  ideality ; these  traits,  though  best  exemplified  in  Pheidias, 
are  by  no  means  confined  to  the  great  master.  Pheidias,  however, 
founded  no  school  properly  so  called  ; he  had  associates  in  his  work, 
but  they  mostly  followed  their  own  subsequent  lines.  If  the  phrase 
may  be  used  without  misconception,  Pheidias  was  absolutely  normal, 
and  without  idiosyncrasies ; he  did  not  therefore  lend  himself  to 
imitation,  still  less  to  the  exaggeration  and  degeneration  in  which  the 
following  of  a great  master  often  terminates.  But  he  created  types 
which  had  an  unconscious  influence  on  his  successors,  as  in  the  case 
of  his  Zeus  and  Athena  ; and  many  of  his  technical  innovations  also 
became  a heritage.  The  reflection  of  his  style  is,  as  noted  above, 
best  seen  in  the  sepulchral  monuments  of  the  fourth  century  (p.  127), 
in  which  we  observe  a transition  from  the  ideal  to  the  merely  beautiful, 
and  from  the  general  to  the  individual,  which  represents,  briefly,  the 
transition  from  Pheidias  to  Praxiteles. 

1 Plate  XL. 


G.  A s 


113 


PHEIDIA8  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 


The  epoch  of  this  transition  corresponds  with  the  period  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War;  and  it  is  probably  in  a measure  due  to  the  fact 
til  at  after  430  B.c.  there  was  less  scope  for  the  application  of  art  in  its 
highest  forms  to  the  adornment  of  great  public  buildings.  It  was  the 
Persian  Wars  which  acted  as  a uniting  element  in  Greek  politics  and 
culture  ; but  the  result  of  the  Peloponnesian  Wars  was  the  promotion 
of  an  individualism  by  which  the  character  of  both  was  completely 
changed. 


114 


I'LAIE  Mjy 


I'HK  lIKK.MKS  f)l  I’KAXITKl.KS 
(dI.YMCIA  MUSKL'M) 


CHAPTER  VII 


GUEElv  SCULl'TUUE  AFTl'.ll  PH  El  DIAS 


Characteristics  of  fourth-century  sculpture — Praxiteles — The  Hermes — Skopas 
— Sculpture  in  Asia  Minor — The  Mausoleum — Other  fourth-century  sculptors — 
Lysippos — Attic  sepulchral  reliefs — The  Sidon  Sarcophagi — The  Hellenistic 
Age — The  schools  of  Rhodes  and  Pergamon — The  Laocoon — The  Aphrodite  of 
Melos  and  other  existing  works — Genre  subjects  and  reliefs. 


I.  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY 

IN  the  preceding  chapter  we  hinted  at  the  gradual  replacement  of 
idealism  in  art  by  realism,  and  of  political  and  artistic  unity  by 
individualising  tendencies.  The  fourth  century  marks  the  rapid 
growth  of  these  two  principles.  In  the  political  world  we  may  observe 
the  disappearance  of  the  old  democracy  of  culture  with  the  decay  of 
Athens,  followed  by  the  short-lived  military  supremacies  of  Sparta  and 
Thebes,  and  culminating  in  the  ‘one-man’  dominion  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  an  entirely  new  feature  in  Greek  history.  Similarly  in  the 
domain  of  art,  the  history  of  the  century  shows  the  gradual 
rationalising  of  religious  ideas  as  expressed  in  sculptured  representa- 
tions of  the  gods,  and  the  replacement  of  the  idealised  cosmic 
conceptions  by  individualised  figures,  in  which  the  religious  idea  makes 
way  for  mere  grace  and  sentiment.  Instead  of  Zeus,  Hera,  and 
Athena,  Dionysos,  Aphrodite,  and  Apollo  are  the  typical  subjects  of 
the  sculptor’s  art,  and  the  motives  of  his  creations  are  not  religious 
but  ethical. 

The  earliest  name  usually  associated  with  this  century  is  that  of 
Kephisodotos,  the  father — or  more  probably  elder  brother — of  Praxi- 
teles, who  worked  about  395-370  R.c.,  and  in  some  res])ects  illustrates 
the  period  of  transition  from  the  preceding  century.  His  best-known 
work  was  a statue  of  Eirene  (Peace)  nursing  the  infant  Ploutos 
(Wealth),  a type  of  figure  which  now  appears  for  the  first  time,  but 

115 


GREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 


was  destined  to  have  many  imitators,  notably  the  great  Hermes  of  his 
immediate  successor.  By  means  of  reproductions  on  coins  of  Athens, 
a copy  of  this  statue  has  been  traced  in  a work  of  considerable  merit 
now  at  Munich.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  worship  of  Peace, 
begun  in  the  time  of  Aristophanes,  was  finally  established  about 
375  n.c.  The  type  seems  to  represent  a transition  from  the  simple 
hgure  with  an  attribute,  to  the  group  with  a close  relation  between 
the  figures.  In  the  treatment  of  the  drapery  we  can  trace  lingering 
indications  of  archaic  stiffness,  due  perhaps  to  the  fact  of  a bronze 
original,  while  the  figure  of  the  child,  though  modified  in  the  copy, 
still  retains  the  defects  which  characterise  the  attempts  of  most  Greek 
sculptors  in  this  direction.  But  that  Kephisodotos  stands  at  the  head  of 
a new  development  is  further  shown  by  his  personifications  of  abstract 
ideas,  a principle  which  henceforth  rapidly  increases  in  popularity. 

His  immediate  successor,  and  the  most  typical  sculptor  of  the 
fourth  centufy,  is  Praxiteles,  who  would  seem  from  the  language  of 
ancient  writers  to  have  been  held  in  higher  estimation  than  any  other 
sculptor  of  antiquity.  Without  going  so  far  as  this  we  may  yet  affirm 
that  he  was  the  greatest  sculptor  of  the  fourth  century,  and  that  he  is 
the  most  representative  of  its  character  and  achievements.  By  birth 
and  training  an  Athenian,  he  appears  to  have  worked  also  in  other 
parts  of  the  Greek  world,  and  though  there  is  no  certainty  as  to  dates 
we  may  place  the  period  of  his  activity  about  370-350  b.c.  From  the 
pages  of  Pliny  and  other  writers  we  may  glean  a list  of  no  less  than 
forty-six  recorded  works  by  him,  besides  others  about  which  there  is 
uncertainty.  About  one-third  of  these  are  single  figures  of  gods,  and 
another  third,  groups  of  deities  or  other  mythological  scenes ; the 
remainder  are  either  genre  figures,  such  as  a woman  spinning  or  a 
girl  decking  herself  with  jewels,  or  representations  of  his  mistress 
Phryne.  Most  of  these  were  in  marble,  though  occasionally  he 
employed  bronze. 

As  compared  with  other  sculptors,  we  are  exceptionally  fortunate 
in  being  able  to  recognise  several  of  the  more  famous  of  Praxiteles’ 
works  in  copies,  and  thus  his  characteristics  had  long  been  familiar  to 
students  of  classical  art  when  other  masters  had  as  yet  hardly  been 
properly  estimated.  But  since  the  year  1877  it  has  been  possible  to 
say  of  him,  what  can  be  said  of  no  other  sculptor,  that  we.  actually 
possess  one  of  his  chief  works  direct  from  his  hand. 

The  Hermes  of  Praxiteles,  thirty  years  ago  a mere  name,  is  now  as 
familiar  to  us  as  the  Aphrodite  of  Melos  or  the  Apollo  Belvedere. 

IIG 


PRAXITELES 


When  this  marvellous  work  was  brought  to  light  by  the  German 
excavators  at  Olympia,  there  was  no  difficulty  in  identifying  it,  as  it 
had  been  expressly  stated  by  Pausanias  that  a ‘ Hermes  of  marble, 
carrying  the  child  Dionysos,  the  work  of  Praxiteles,’  stood  on  the  spot 
where  this  statue  was  found.  The  state  of  its  preservation  was,  all 
things  considered,  little  short  of  marvellous,  and  in  view  of  the  rarity 
of  marble  heads  in  perfect  condition,  it  was  a matter  for  much 
congratulation  to  find  this  absolutely  unharmed.  But  it  is  not  only 
the  beauty  of  the  head  and  of  the  pose  and  modelling  of  the  body 
which  attracts  the  attention ; to  those  who  have  seen  the  original, 
placed  in  the  soft  half  - light  of  its  room  in  the  museum  at 
Olympia,  a revelation  is  given  of  the  appearance  of  a genuine  Greek 
statue.  It  is  the  wonderful  colouring  and  texture  of  the  marble  with 
its  play  of  light  and  shade  which  make  its  special  attraction,  and 
unfortunately  these  are  all  lost  in  the  casts,  with  which  alone  most  of 
us  are  familiar. 

To  speak  of  the  statue  in  detail,^  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the 
right  arm  and  both  legs  from  the  knees,  with  the  exception  of  the 
exquisite  sandalled  right  foot,  are  wanting,  and  that  the  former  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  held  up  a bunch  of  grapes,  towards  which 
the  child  extended  its  left  hand.  This  theory  is  supported  by  the 
existence  of  one  or  two  copies  in  other  materials,  and  of  a terra-cotta 
caricature  of  the  subject.“  The  graceful,  easy  curve  in  which  the  body 
is  posed  was  a specially  Praxitelean  characteristic,  appearing  in  all  his 
works ; and  this  leaning,  restful  attitude  forms  a remarkable  contrast 
to  the  square  sturdy  figures  of  Polykleitos.  The  left  arm  which  holds 
the  child  rests  on  a tree-trunk  covered  with  drapery,  the  folds  of  which 
are  reproduced  with  wonderful  realism  ; ^ but  the  child  is  the  least 
successful  part  of  the  composition.  In  speaking  of  the  Eirene  and 
Ploutos  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  allude  to  this  singular 
deficiency  on  the  part  of  Greek  sculptors  of  the  period ; it  is  rare  to 
find  a child  treated  otherwise  than  as  a miniature  adult.  And  we  may 
note  a curious  parallel  in  the  many  failures  of  the  great  Italian  painters 
to  do  justice  to  the  figure  of  the  Infant  Saviour. 

The  Hermes  was  not  regarded  in  antiquity  as  one  of  Praxiteles’ 
great  works,  but  it  must  now  always  form  the  basis  of  any  criticism  of 
his  style,  and  it  is  possible  that  even  if  one  of  the  more  famous  ones 

^ See  Plate  xliv.  ^ See  Klein,  PraxHeles,  p.  873  ff. 

^ A German  critic,  on  seeing  a photograph  of  the  statue  for  the  first  time,  exclaimed  ‘ ^^"hy  did 
they  leave  that  cloth  hanging  there  when  they  photographed  the  statue  ?’ 


117 


(IREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 

liad  been  preserved  in  its  place  we  should  not  have  received  such  a 
favourable  impression. 

Ancient  writers  agreed  in  assigning  to  the  Aphrodite  of  Knidos 
the  first  place  for  beauty  among  Greek  statues.  The  type  is  well 
known  to  us  from  copies  on  coins  and  in  minor  works  of  bronze  or 
terra-cotta,  and  marble  copies  exist  at  IMunich  and  in  the  Vatican.^ 
The  goddess  is  represented  as  just  stepping  into  the  bath,  but  perfect 
as  the  treatment  of  the  nude  form  must  have  been,  the  effect  is  greatly 
marred  by  the  obvious  consciousness  of  nudity  displayed  in  her 
attitude.  Although  Praxiteles’  attempt  to  express  the  modesty  of 
the  goddess  was  doubtless  sincere,  it  is  obvious  that  with  the 
inevitable  subsequent  degeneration  of  taste  this  trait  was  destined  to 
become  vulgarised  into  a less  refined  conception,  the  modesty 
becoming  more  apparent  than  real.  The  pose  of  the  figure  is  almost 
identical  with  that  of  the  Hermes,  though  the  necessity  for  a support 
is  not  so  strongly  accentuated.  The  head,  and  especially  the  hair  and 
eyes,  were  selected  by  Lucian  as  points  in  which  Praxiteles  excelled  all 
other  sculptors,  a criticism  by  the  way,  which  we  may  fairly  apply  to 
his  Hermes. 

The  story  goes  that  Phryne  by  a false  alarm  of  fire  elicited  from 
Praxiteles  the  acknowledgment  that  he  regarded  his  Eros  and  his 
Satyr  as  his  two  most  precious  works.  The  former  was  dedicated  by 
her  in  her  native  town  of  Thespiae,  and  formed  a great  attraction 
there,  but  we  know  nothing  of  its  character.  Praxiteles  may,  however, 
be  said  to  have  created  the  type  of  Eros,  at  least  as  we  know  it  in  the 
fourth  century.  The  Satyr  or  Faun  stood  in  the  Street  of  Tripods  at 
Athens,  and  exists  in  several  copies,  the  best  being  in  the  Capitol  at 
Rome.  In  its  youthful,  graceful  form  we  observe  a great  change  from 
the  purely  bestial  creations  of  an  older  art.  The  last  statue  that  need 
be  mentioned  is  the  pretty  conception  of  Apollo  Sauroktonos  or  the 
Lizard-slayer ; the  effeminate  character  of  the  various  copies  we 
possess  is  probably  not  originally  due  to  Praxiteles. 

It  would  not  be  right  to  quit  the  subject  of  Praxiteles  without 
mentioning  a work  which,  if  not  certainly,  is  very  probably  from  his 
hand,  a sculptured  base  found  at  Mantineia,  with  reliefs  of  Apollo 
contending  with  Marsyas,  accompanied  by  the  INIuses.  This  is 
mentioned  by  Pausanias  as  having  been  made  for  INIantineia  by 
Praxiteles,  the  group  it  supported  representing  Apollo  with  Artemis 
and  I^eto.  Another  work  in  which  Praxitelean  characteristics  have 

^ Tlie  latter  is  g-iven  on  Plate 


118 


PLATE  XLl 


(BRITISH  Ml  SKU\l) 


I!I<()\ZK  HK.\h>  or 


PRAXITELES 

been  generally  recognised  is  the  beautiful  head  in  Lord  Leconfield’s 
possession  at  Petworth. 

The  style  of  this  sculptor  is  also  reflected  in  some  very  fine  works 
in  bronze,  most  of  which,  however,  are  only  on  a small  scale.  By  far 
the  most  beautiful  is  the  exquisite  winged  head  of  Hypnos,  the  God 
of  Sleep,  in  the  British  Museum,  which  was  found  at  Perugia.^  It 
bears  a strong  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Apollo  Sauroktonos.  The 
treatment  of  the  hair,  the  soft  beauty  of  the  head,  and  the  whole 
artistic  conception  tend  to  justify  this  attribution,  even  if  the  work  is 
not  directly  from  his  hand.  The  left  wing  is  unfortunately  lost,  but 
the  right  remains,  attached  to  the  temple,  which  the  ancients  regarded 
as  the  seat  of  sleep.  Following  a Homeric  notion  the  sculptor  has 
made  them. like  the  wings  of  a night-hawk,  which  moves  with  perfect 
silence,  as  is  appropriate  for  the  God  of  Sleep.  An  Aphrodite  from 
the  Pourtales  collection,  also  in  the  British  JMuseum,  is  a good 
example  of  the  style  of  Praxiteles,  though  not  necessarily  a copy  of 
any  of  his  works ; and  in  another  statuette,  an  Apollo  from  Thessaly, 
the  characteristic  easy  attitude  of  all  his  figures  is  to  be  observed. 

Contemporary  with  Praxiteles,  but  in  many  ways  showing  a 
marked  contrast  to  him,  was  his  great  rival  Skopas  (390-350  b.c.),  also 
a product  of  the  Athenian  school,  although  a native  of  Paros.  He 
worked  on  the  great  temple  at  Tegea  in  Arcadia  about  393  b.c.,  and  on 
the  IMausoleum  about  350.  In  him  we  observe  a remarkable  energy 
and  passion  which  contrast  strongly  with  the  dreamy  sensuousness  and 
delicate  grace  of  his  rival.  Only  about  twenty  works  by  him  are 
recorded,  and  his  fame  in  antiquity  never  approached  that  of  Praxiteles. 
None  of  them  are  preserved  in  originals,  and  few  in  copies,  but  we  have 
in  the  scanty  fragments  of  the  pedimental  sculptures  made  by  him  for 
the  Tegea  temple  two  heads  of  such  striking  and  original  character 
that  they  afford  a very  fair  idea  of  his  style.  The  peculiarity  of  these 
heads  consists  in  the  treatment  of  the  eye,  with  its  piercing  far-directed 
expression  and  the  heavy  overhanging  brow,  which  at  once  arrest  and 
impress  themselves  upon  the  observer.^ 

Among  other  existing  works  few  approach  nearer  to  these 
heads  in  their  physical  characteristics  than  the  noble  Castellan!  bronze 
head  in  the  British  Museum,  usually  identified  as  Aphrodite.®  In  this 


^ See  Plate  xlvi, 

- The  subject  of  the  pediment  was  the  Hunt  of  the  Calydonian  boar.  Tlie  figure  of  Atalanta 
from  this  pediment  has  recently  been  discovered,  but  the  head  does  not  exhibit  Scopaic  charac- 
teristics, and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  can  really  belong  to  the  figure.  ^ See  Plate  xlvi. 

119 


GREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 

we  see  the  typical  individualities  of  Skopas,  the  low  broad  forehead, 
the  intensely-gazing,  deep-set  eyes,  and  the  large  heavy  nose  strongly 
marked.  Some  have  seen  in  it  a Praxitelean  character,  and  have  even 
gone  so  far  as  to  identify  it  with  the  Knidian  Aphrodite,  chiefly  on  the 
evidence  of  a hand  holding  drapery  which  was  found  with  it.  But  now 
that  we  know  more  of  Skopas’  style,  it  seems  more  natural  to  associate 
it  with  him,  and  the  identification  as  Aphrodite  is  by  no  means 
certain. 

Among  the  works  of  which  we  have  only  records  or  copies,  a famous 
one  was  the  Apollo  Citharoedos  (the  Harper)  which  Augustus  placed  in 
his  temple  on  the  Palatine.  The  god  was  conceived  in  somewhat  femi- 
nine fashion,^  with  elaborately-dressed  hair  and  flowing  draperies,  playing 
on  his  lyre.  The  type  may  possibly  be  seen  on  coins  of  Augustus  and 
Nero,  and  marble  replicas  exist  in  the  British  Museum  and  elsewhere ; 
but  these  copies  certainly  do  not  suggest  what  we  know  of  Skopas’  style, 
and  may  after  all  be  from  some  later  statue.  Another  important  work 
was  a group  representing  the  apotheosis  of  Achilles ; the  hero  was 
represented  as  being  escorted  by  his  mother  Thetis  and  Poseidon,  and 
a troop  of  Nereids  on  sea-monsters,  to  the  islands  of  the  blest.  Skopas 
also  originated  the  type  of  the  frenzied  IMaenad  swinging  a slain  kid  in 
one  hand  (known  as  the  Chimairophonos),  which  has  become  familiar 
in  Roman  reliefs.  For  Pergamon  in  Asia  IMinor  he  made  a colossal 
figure  of  Ares,  afterwards  transported  to  Rome,  which  may  be 
recognised  as  reproduced  on  a relief  of  the  Arch  of  Constantine ; the 
god  was  seated  with  Victory  at  his  side. 

IMost  famous  of  all  the  works  attributed  to  Skopas  was  a great 
group  representing  the  slaying  of  the  children  of  Niobe  by  Apollo  and 
Artemis,  which  was  brought  from  Asia  IMinor  to  Rome  and  set  up  in 
a temple  of  Apollo  about  35  b.c.  Pliny  expresses  doubts  as  to 
whether  it  was  the  work  of  Skopas  or  Praxiteles,  and  modern  writers 
have  largely  wavered  between  the  claims  of  the  two.  If,  however,  the 
group  as  we  know  it  from  copies  reflects  the  style  of  either,  our 
choice  must  lie  with  Skopas ; but,  though  undoubtedly  in  keeping  with 
the  traditions  of  fourth-century  style,  it  may  equally  well  be  derived 
from  some  other  sculptor  under  his  influence.  Of  the  various  copies 
of  this  group  the  majority  are  now  in  the  Uffizi  at  Florence;^  but  none 
of  them  can  compete  with  the  Chiaramonte  Niobid  of  the  Vatican,  a 
marvellous  study  of  drapery  in  motion,  as  the  girl  flees  in  a vain 

^ Feminine  costume  was  considered  as  appropriate  for  musicians  by  the  Greeks. 

2 See  Plate  xlyii.  for  group  of  mother  and  child. 

120 


AT/£  yLVl. 


(ivnMsniv  iiM.iiMW) 


I’LA  1 t. 


\ i.  i III 


STA'I’UK  OK  M.UTSOLOS 

(liK’i  risii  Ml  skim) 


SKOPAS 


endeavour  to  escape  her  fate.  The  Florence  group  of  the  grief- 
stricken  mother  holding  up  her  drapery  to  protect  her  younger  child  is 
a well-known  one ; and  in  this  as  in  the  others  we  note  the  reserve  and 
moderation  with  which  passion  is  still  expressed  in  the  fourth 
century. 

We  are  also  told  that  Skopas  took  part  in  the  decoration  of  the 
IMausoleum  at  Halikarnassos  and  of  the  great  temple  at  Ephesus,  but 
as  regards  the  latter  the  remains  are  insufficient  to  attempt  any 
identification.  The  JMausoleum  sculptures  will  be  discussed  in  the 
succeeding  section. 

In  the  fifth  century  nearly  all  the  great  buildings  with  whose 
decoration  we  have  been  concerned  were  to  be  found  in  Greece  itself; 
but  the  political  changes  brought  about  by  the  Peloponnesian  War  for 
the  most  part  put  an  end  to  Hellenic  ambition  in  this  direction, 
especially  at  Athens,  and  the  centre  of  architectural  activity  in  the 
fourth  century  is  removed  to  Asia  INlinor.  Here  the  Ionic  style  is 
seen  to  be  just  at  its  height,  and  the  mantle  of  Peisistratos  and  Pericles 
has  fallen  on  a JMausolos,  an  Attains,  or  an  Alexander.  Nevertheless 
it  was  found  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  great  masters  of  the 
plastic  art  in  Greece  for  the  decoration  of  these  magnificent  buildings, 
and  thus  we  hear  of  Skopas  and  others  of  his  contemporaries  being 
actively  occupied  for  some  time  in  Asia  JNlinor. 

The  earliest  monument  of  fourth-century  style  in  this  series  is  the 
Nereid  IMonument  of  Xanthos  in  Lycia.  Some  authorities,  indeed,  as 
we  noted  in  the  last  chapter,  prefer  to  associate  it  with  the  fifth,  and 
undoubtedly  the  sculpture  has  many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  best 
Attic  work,  combined  with  the  pictorial  tendencies  of  Ionic  art,  which 
we  have  also  noted  in  the  Gjolbaschi  heroon  (p.  112).  The  figures  of 
Nereids,  from  which  it  derives  its  name,  were  placed  between  the  pillars 
of  the  colonnade ; the  sculptures  were  arranged  in  four  friezes  round 
various  parts  of  the  building.  All  the  existing  remains  are  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  where  they  are,  so  to  speak,  turned  outside  in,  being 
arranged  round  interior  walls  in  the  same  manner  as  originally  on  the 
exterior.  The  principal  frieze  represents  a battle,  and  the  capture  of 
a city,  and  is  very  vividly  conceived. 

Next  in  date,  but  far  surpassing  it  in  importance,  is  the  JMausoleum, 
of  which  we  have  given  a description  in  our  chapter  on  Architecture 
(p.  49).  Pliny  tells  us  that  the  sculpture  was  executed  jointly  by  four 
artists,  Skopas,  Bryaxis,  Timotheos,  and  Leochares,  each  being  respon- 

121 


GREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 

sible  for  one  side.  The  colossal  portrait-statue  of  IVIausolos/  whicli 
cannot  be  identified  as  any  artist’s  work,  is  yet  a very  successful 
achievement,  full  of  dignity  and  broadly  conceived,  the  treatment  of 
the  drapery  being  very  fine  ; the  face  is  obviously  not  a Greek  type, 
but  conveys  a very  favourable  impression  of  the  great  prince. 

Tlie  remains  of  sculpture  preserved  to  us  from  the  Mausoleum  are 
partly  in  the  round,  including  the  colossal  four-horse  chariot  on  the 
top,  various  equestrian  statues,  and  figures  of  lions  ; partly  decorative 
friezes,  of  which  three  can  be  distinguished,  though  their  respective 
positions  are  doubtful.  The  finest  work  is  to  be  seen  in  the  smallest 
of  the  three,  representing  a chariot-race ; although  it  is  in  a very 
fragmentary  condition  it  contains  one  figure  which  stands  out  as  a work 
of  supreme  excellence,’  a figure  in  the  long-trailing  robe  girt  at  the 
waist  which  charioteers  always  wear,  leaning  forward  as  if  straining 
towards  the  goal.  The  keen,  intense  expression  and  the  forceful 
attitude  at  once  recall  the  characteristics  we  have  observed  in  the 
work  of  Skopas,  who  may  therefore  have  been  entrusted  with  the 
design  of  this  particular  frieze.  As  to  the  other  three  artists,  although 
existing  works  may  give  us  some  idea  of  their  respective  styles,  it  is 
impossible  to  recognise  them  in  any  parts  of  the  JNIausoleum  sculptures. 
It  is  most  likely  that  the  association  of  each  with  a particular  part  of 
the  building  was  a later  story,  arising  from  the  fact  that  all  four  were 
associated  in  the  general  design,  just  as  we  saw  that  the  story  of  a 
competition  arose  out  of  the  group  of  Amazons  by  Polykleitos  and 
others  at  Ephesus. 

The  great  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus,  rebuilt  about  350  b.c., 
was  remarkable  among  other  features  for  the  sculptured  designs  round 
the  lower  parts  of  the  columns  and  on  the  square  bases.  Pliny  tells  us 
that  one  of  these  was  by  Skopas,  but  in  the  best  preserved  of  them, 
now  in  the  Pritish  Museum,  we  are  rather  disposed  to  recognise  the 
characteristics  of  Praxiteles.  The  subject  has  been  variously  explained, 
but  probably  represents  Alcestis  conveyed  to  Hades  by  Death,  a 
youthful  winged  figure  armed  with  a sword,  and  Hermes  the  conductor 
of  souls.  The  conception  and  treatment  of  the  two  male  figures  is 
decidedly  influenced  by  Praxiteles.  Contemporaneous  with  these 
works  are  the  sculptures  from  the  temple  of  Athena  at  Priene,  also 
in  the  British  Museum,  which  represent  a battle  of  gods  and  giants. 

Among  the  many  treasures  of  fourth -century  sculpture  obtained 
by  English  explorers  for  the  British  IMuseum  none  holds  a higher 

^ Plate  xLviir.  ^ Plate  xlvii. 


122 


OTHER  FOURTH-CENTURY  SCULPTORS 


place  than  the  exquisite  figure  of  the  mourning  I3emeter,  or  mater 
aolorosa  as  it  might  almost  be  styled,  brought  by  Sir  Charles  Newton 
from  Knidos.^  The  sculptor  is  unknown,  and  w^e  cannot  institute  a 
comparison  with  any  other  existing  work  ; but  it  is  possible  to  descry 
in  the  figure  the  influence  both  of  Skopas  and  Praxiteles.  The  latter 
sculptor  worked,  as  we  know,  at  Knidos,  and  Skopas  at  Halikarnassos 
close  by,  so  that  the  artist,  if  a local  man,  may  well  have  come  under 
the  influence  of  the  two  great  masters.  The  expression  of  Demeter’s 
face,  as  a rendering  of  resignation  and  chastened  grief,  has  seldom  been 
surpassed,  and  as  a presentment  of  the  dignity  of  sorrow  it  ranks  with 
the  greatest  products  of  mediaeval  genius. 

The  second  half  of  the  fourth  century  marks  a period  of  transition 
from  the  somewhat  sentimental  and  emotional  creations  of  the  first 
half  to  the  realistic  school  of  the  succeeding  age.  It  is  also  dis- 
tinguished by  a revival  of  heroic  subjects  and  healthy  vigorous  con- 
ceptions, culminating  in  the  work  of  I^ysippos,  the  most  conspicuous 
representative  of  the  period.  jNleanwhile  passing  mention  must  be 
made  of  the  other  names  by  which  it  is  marked. 

Euphranor  of  Corinth  was  both  sculptor  and  painter,  and  excelled 
in  ideal  portraits  of  heroes  and  the  study  of  character,  such  as  that  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  Seilanion’s  work  w^as  much  on  the  same  lines, 
and  a portrait  of  Plato  which  he  made  for  the  Academy  enjoyed  great 
renowm.  A curious  story  is  told  of  him,  that  in  a statue  of  the  dying 
Jocasta  he  mingled  silver  with  the  bronze  to  reproduce  the  paleness  of 
death  in  her  countenance.  As  a matter  of  technique  this  w^ould  have 
been  practically  impossible  in  the  casting  (see  p.  68),  but  it  may  have 
been  produced  by  inlaying  or  coating  over  the  bronze.  Of  the  three 
sculptors  who  worked  at  the  INIausoleum,  Timotheos  also  made  figures 
to  adorn  the  pediments  of  the  temple  of  Asklepios  at  Epidauros; 
several  of  these  were  found  in  the  course  of  recent  excavations, 
gracefully-conceived  figures  of  Victories  and  Nereids,  w ith  clinging  or 
floating  draperies  in  the  style  of  late  Attic  fifth-century  work.  The 
temple-statue  of  the  god  was  by  Thrasymedes  of  Paros,  and  copies  of 
it  have  been  preserved  in  reliefs  found  on  the  site. 

Leochares,  who  also  worked  on  the  Mausoleum,  made  a famous 
statue  of  Ganymede  carried  off  by  the  eagle  of  Zeus,  which,  as  Pliny 
says,  ‘sensible  of  his  beauty,  seems  careful  not  to  hurt  him.’  Several 
replicas  of  this  exist,  the  best  being  in  the  Vatican.  He  also  made 


^ Plate  XLV. 


T28 


GREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDTAS 

statues  of  Zeus  and  Apollo,  and  portraits  of  Alexander  tlie  Great,  and 
seems  to  have  been  an  artist  of  much  individuality.  Recently  an 
attempt  has  been  made  to  attribute  to  him  the  well-known  Apollo 
Belvedere  of  the  Vatican  (p.  135),  but  it  can  hardly  be  as  early  as  the 
fourth  century. 

An  interesting  personality  is  Damophon  of  Messene,  who  harks 
back  to  the  traditions  of  Pheidias,  not  only  as  confining  himself 
exclusively  to  temple-statues  of  deities,  but  as  a worker  in  gold  and 
ivory.^  At  Lykosura  in  Arcadia  he  made  for  the  temple  of  Despoina 
(Persephone)  a colossal  group  representing  her  with  Demeter,  Artemis, 
and  the  Titan  Anytos.  In  recent  excavations  remains  of  these  statues 
have  been  discovered,  which  show  much  originality  and  individuality 
of  treatment.  Along  with  them  was  found  a remarkable  piece  of 
drapery  in  marble  witli  rich  embroidery  in  low  relief. 

Lysippos  was  a native  of  Sikyon,  and  flourished  about  330-315  b.c.  ; 
we  are  told  that  he  was  self-taught.  He  was  a most  prolific  artist, 
and,  though  only  thirty-five  of  his  works  are  recorded  by  name,  he  is 
said  to  have  made  fifteen  hundred  in  all.  He  exercised  considerable 
influence  on  subsequent  art,  especially  at  Rome.  His  chief  character- 
istics are  realism,  vigour,  and  artistic  skill,  combined  with  a manliness 
and  robustness  to  which  the  bronze,  in  which  he  exclusively  worked, 
was  well  suited.  His  range  of  subjects  includes  deities,  heroes,  and 
athletes,  among  the  former  being  four  of  Zeus,  one  of  colossal  size ; a 
Poseidon  in  which  he  created  the  type  for  succeeding  generations ; 
and  the  famous  Kairos  or  Opportunity  at  Sikyon.  This  latter  was  a 
purely  allegorical  figure,  though  probably  conceived  as  an  athletic 
youthful  deity  of  the  Hermes  type,  very  far  removed  from  our  idea  of 
Father  Time.  Among  his  heroes  were  several  figures  of  Herakles,  his 
conception  of  whom  as  a toil-worn  man  resting  from  his  labours  is 
quite  new  in  Greek  art,  and  more  characteristic  of  the  succeeding 
century.  Alexander  the  Great  was  his  special  patron,  and,  according 
to  tradition,  allowed  no  one  else  to  make  statues  of  him.  Of  these 
three  are  recorded,  and  several  extant  statues  and  busts  of  the  Great 
King  illustrate  the  descriptions  given  of  them,  even  if  they  cannot  be 
referred  to  those  originals. “ We  are  told  that  he  reproduced  Alexander’s 
physical  peculiarities,  the  twist  of  his  neck  and  the  liquid  gaze  of  his 
eye,  without  sacrificing  the  lion-like  vigour  of  his  general  appearance. 

1 It  must  not  be  ignored  that  some  writers  place  Damoplion  much  later  than  the  fourth  century. 

See  Plate  xlii.  Fig.  2. 

124 


PLATE  XL/X 


IHK  A<;iAS  AND  APOXVOMKNOS  OF  I.VSIFFOS 


7 / V'U 


LYSIPPOS 


The  most  famous  of  his  statues,  however,  seems  to  have  been  one 
of  an  athlete  scraping  himself  with  a strigil  after  exercising  in  the 
palaestra,  known  as  the  Apoocyomcnos,  This  work,  of  which  a good 
marble  copy  exists  in  the  Vatican,^  has  been  described  as  a study  in 
athletic  genre  rather  than  a representation  of  an  individual  athlete. 
It  has  been  supposed  that  it  was  meant  to  embody  a new  system  of 
proportion,  varying  from  that  of  Polykleitos.  Pliny  tells  us  that  he 
made  the  bodily  proportions  more  slender  and  the  head  smaller ; and 
certainly  if  we  compare  the  ^"atican  Apoxyomenos  with  the  athletes 
of  Polykleitos,  this  is  the  impression  we  carry  away.  Lysippos  was 
also  distinguished  for  his  power  of  expressing  character,  as  already 
noted  in  the  case  of  Alexander ; and  his  statues  of  Aesop  and  the 
Seven  Wise  INIen  may  have  been  studies  in  this  direction.  An  illus- 
tration of  his  robust  and  virile  tendencies  is  given  by  the  remarkable 
omission  of  any  female  creations  from  the  list  of  his  works. 

An  important  light  has  recently  been  thrown  on  the  work  of 
Lysippos  by  the  discovery  at  Delphi,  in  1897,  of  a statue  representing 
Agias,  an  athlete  of  Pharsalos  in  Thessaly,“  with  which  has  been  con- 
nected an  inscription  stating  that  a statue  with  that  name  was  made 
by  our  sculptor.  M.  Homolle  thinks  that  we  are  justified  in  accepting 
this  identification,  and  regarding  the  Agias  as  a contemporary  work, 
if  not  actually  from  his  hand.  He  deduces  therefrom  the  opinion 
that  Lysippos  consciously  borrowed  from  Praxiteles  (rather  than  from 
Skopas),  and  that  he  preserved,  in  spite  of  his  innovations,  something 
of  the  character  of  Polykleitos.  Thus  the  school  of  Sikyon  may  be 
connected  with  both  those  of  Athens  and  Argos.  This  statue  must 
in  future  form  the  text  on  which  all  discussions  of  Lysippos  are  based, 
just  as  the  Hermes  has  for  the  last  thirty  years  been  the  basis  of  all 
discussion  of  Praxiteles. 

Lysippos  being  par  excellence  a worker  in  bronze,  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing that  we  find  many  existing  works  in  that  material  which  obviously 
belong  to  his  school,  and  some  must  be  almost  contemporary  with 
him.  Of  these  none  are  equal  in  merit  to  the  exquisite  heroic  figure 
from  the  lake  of  Bracciano  in  the  British  Museum,^  in  some  respects 
perhaps  the  finest  of  all  existing  Greek  bronzes.  It  represents  a 
youthful  hero  seated  on  a rock  looking  downwards,  and  is  cast  solid 
with  a flat  back,  so  that  it  is  partly  in  high  relief  It  has  been  attached 
at  the  back  to  a piece  of  furniture. 

The  famous  bronzes  of  Siris,^  found  near  that  river  in  Southern 

^ Plate  xLix.  2 Ihid.  ^ Plate  cvi.  ^ Ibid. 

125 


GREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 


Italy  ill  1820,  are  close  rivals  of  the  Bracciano  figure,  and  equally 
reminiscent  of  the  style  of  Lysippos,  especially  in  their  minuteness 
of  finish.  They  form  the  shoulder-pieces  of  a cuirass,  and  from  a 
technical  point  of  view  are  a truly  marvellous  production.  The  subject 
of  the  two  reliefs  is  that  of  a Greek  hero  overthrowing  an  Amazon, 
and  the  figures,  although  only  beaten  out  from  behind  in  repousse 
work,  are  hammered  out  to  such  a degree  of  fineness  that  they  are 
almost  in  the  round,  and  the  bronze  has  been  reduced  to  little  more 
than  the  thickness  of  paper.  Add  to  this  the  extraordinary  care  and 
delicacy  with  which  every  detail  has  been  worked  up  on  the  surface, 
such  as  the  folds  of  drapery,  the  hair,  and  the  patterns  on  the  shields, 
and  the  whole  presents  a tour  de  force  which  none  but  a great  master 
could  have  executed. 

Yet  again,  we  find  the  Lysippian  influence  strongly  marked  in  a 
group  of  bronzes  found  at  Paramythia  in  Epirus,  near  the  seat  of  the 
ancient  oracle  of  Zeus  at  Dodona.  They  were  discovered  in  1795-96, 
and  the  greater  number  were  obtained  by  the  great  collector  Payne 
Knight,  from  whom  they  came  to  the  British  JMuseum.  They  repre- 
sent various  gods  such  as  Zeus,  Poseidon,  and  Apollo,  the  two  first- 
named  being  perhaps  the  finest  specimens.  Their  date  is  about  the 
third  century  n.c.  In  the  Poseidon  we  observe  the  short  torso  and 
long  legs  which  characterise  the  Lysippian  system  of  proportions,  and 
bearing  in  mind  that  that  sculptor  created  a type  of  the  god,  we  may 
fairly  regard  this  as  a good  representative  of  it.  The  dolphin  and  the 
trident,  which  he  held  as  attributes,  have  unfortunately  been  lost. 
Another  fine  figure,  minutely  finished,  and  with  a keen  expression  of 
face,  is  the  Zeus,  also  a favourite  subject  with  Lysippos. 

Lysippos  is  generally  regarded  as  standing  on  the  threshold  of  the 
new  or  Hellenistic  Age,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  his  influence  on 
later  sculpture  is  very  conspicuous,  especially  in  technique  and  artistic 
skill.  Before,  however,  we  turn  to  his  immediate  successors,  we  must 
allude  to  two  groups  of  monuments  which  are  associated  with  the 
fourth  century,  if  not  with  the  names  of  any  great  masters. 

In  the  series  of  Attic  tombstones  which  have  been  discovered 
in  the  Ceramicus,  the  chief  burial-place  of  ancient  Athens,  we  are 
confronted  with  a group  of  subjects  carved  in  relief,  which,  though 
undoubtedly  belonging  to  the  fourth  century,  yet  in  a great  measure 
recall  the  spirit  of  the  preceding  phase  of  art.  Beautiful  as  they 
ippear  to  our  eyes,  it  must  be  remembered  that,  like  the  painted  vases, 
126 


ATTIC  SEPULCHRAL  RELIEFS 


they  are  really  minor  products  of  art,  in  no  case  associated  with  great 
names,  but  from  the  workshops  of  humble  craftsmen.  These  would 
naturally  learn  and  retain  the  traditions  of  an  earlier  period,  and  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  the  genius  of  a Pheidias  for  sculpture  in  relief 
would  exercise  a specially  powerful  influence.  Hence  we  see  in  these 
Attic  sepulchral  monuments  of  the  fourth  century  a conservative 
tendency  which  forms  a marked  contrast  with  the  passion  and  senti- 
ment of  a Skopas  or  a Praxiteles. 

The  subjects  of  these  reliefs  are  mainly  typical  scenes  from  daily 
life : women  at  their  toilet  or  work,  athletes  and  warriors  on  horse- 
back, banquet-scenes,  and,  most  common  of  all,  parting-scenes  between 
members  of  a family.  Their  exact  significance  is  not  always  easy  to 
explain,  but  in  most  cases  the  only  idea  of  the  artist  was  to  represent 
the  deceased  as  he  or  she  had  been  in  daily  life,  in  some  typical 
occupation.  Thus  the  monument  of  Dexileos,  who  fell  in  fighting 
against  the  Corinthians  in  394  b.c.,  depicts  him  on  horseback,  spearing 
a fallen  foe  ; or  again  that  of  Hegeso,  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of 
the  series,  shows  the  lady  taking  jewels  from  a box  held  out  by  an 
attendant.^  In  the  parting-scenes  on  the  other  hand  there  seems  to  be 
a direct  reference  to  the  death  of  the  deceased.  Although  these  reliefs 
vary  greatly  in  merit,  many  being  quite  inferior  in  execution,  from  the 
sculptor’s  stock-in-trade,  yet  some  stand  out  conspicuous  for  delicacy 
and  refinement  of  conception ; the  Hegeso,  for  instance,  is  a truly 
exquisite  figure,  and  worthy  of  a disciple  of  Pheidias.  While  this 
is  a gem  of  low  relief,  the  Dexileos,  appropriately  to  its  theme,  is 
conceived  in  high  relief,  informed  with  life  and  vigour. 

The  other  group  of  monuments  is  that  of  the  magnificent  marble 
sarcophagi  discovered  not  many  years  ago  at  Sidon,  and  now  at  Con- 
stantinople, which  represent  quite  a new  departure  in  fourth-century 
art.  Their  most  remarkable  feature  is  the  elaborate  system  of  colour- 
ing, which  at  the  time  of  their  discovery  was  in  a marvellous  state  of 
preservation.  It  seems  at  first  sight  curious  that  purely  Greek  works 
of  such  merit  should  be  found  on  such  a distant  site,  but  it  was 
probably,  as  with  the  tombs  of  Lycia,  the  result  of  some  long- 
continued  tradition. 

The  earliest,  known  as  the  tomb  of  the  Satrap,  is  actually  of 
the  fifth  century,  as  is  another  known  as  the  Lycian  tomb,  from  the 
resemblance  of  its  coved  roof  to  those  of  certain  contemporary  Lycian 
monuments,  but  the  style  of  its  sculpture  is  purely  Attic.  Of  the 

1 See  Plate  l.  for  tliese  two  reliefs. 


127 


GREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 


strictly  fourth-century  examples,  that  known  by  the  name  of  IjCS 
Pleureuscs,  the  Weeping  Women,  is  exceedingly  beautiful.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  an  Ionic  temple,  between  the  columns  of  which  stand 
eighteen  figures  in  varying  graceful  attitudes,  but  all  represented 
as  mourning.  The  emotion  is  chastened  and  subdued,  and  the  Attic 
origin  of  the  work  is  clear  from  its  close  parallelism  with  the  tomb- 
stones. 

But  the  most  magnificent  and  beautiful  of  all  is  the  great  sarco- 
phagus known  as  the  tomb  of  Alexander.  It  is  so  called,  not  because 
he  was  buried  therein,  but  because  the  subjects  sculptured  in  relief  on 
its  sides  relate  to  episodes  in  his  life : battles  of  Greeks  and  Oriental 
warriors,  and  hunting-scenes,  in  which  the  conqueror  takes  part.^  The 
general  effect  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  exquisite  colouring,  which 
gives  a more  lifelike  appearance  to  the  figures ; the  style  is  Attic, 
and  many  of  the  figures  with  their  intense  expressions  and  vigorous 
movements  suggest  the  influence  of  Skopas.  It  has  in  fact  been 
pointed  out  that  great  as  Lysippos’  influence  undoubtedly  was,  it  is 
probably  rather  to  Skopas  that  we  must  look  for  the  inspiration  that 
produced  the  highly  emotional  works  typical  of  the  succeeding  age, 
with  which  such  achievements  as  the  Alexander  sarcophagus  form  a 
connecting  link. 


II.  THE  HELLENISTIC  AGE:  DECADENCE  OF  GKEEK  SCULPTURE 

The  history  of  Greek  sculpture  in  the  period  following  the  death 
of  Alexander  the  Great  (323  b.c.)  exemplifies  the  principle  that  Art 
has  a tendency  to  follow  the  course  of  History.  It  is  difficult  at  first 
sight  to  realise  the  influence  exercised  by  the  Great  King  in  this 
respect,  and  yet  it  is  to  be  seen  in  more  than  one  direction.  Not  only 
did  his  patronage  of  sculptors  give  a great  impetus  to  the  study  of 
portraiture,  and  lay  the  foundations  of  a branch  of  sculpture  which  was 
brought  to  perfection  by  the  Romans,  but  even  the  type  of  head  to 
which  the  frequent  reproduction  of  his  features  gave  rise  continually 
asserts  itself  in  the  works  of  the  succeeding  age.  And  in  a wider  sense 
the  personality  of  Alexander  made  its  effects  felt  in  the  history  of  art. 
The  political  conditions  brought  about  by  his  conquests  changed  the 
whole  character  of  Greek  life,  which  ceased  to  be  national  and  isolated, 
and  became  cosmopolitan.  The  centre  of  gravity,  so  to  speak,  was 

1 Plate  LI. 


128 


rLATi:  1. 1 


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SCULPTURE  AT  PERGAMON 


shifted  eastwards  from  Athens  to  Alexandria  and  the  coast  of  Asia, 
and  the  relative  importance  of  the  latter  region  now  becomes  strongly 
marked.  The  current  of  Art  bifurcates,  and  one-half  follows  the  east- 
ward movement,  the  other  half  lingers  on  in  a dormant  condition  until 
it  reappears  in  Roman  times. 

And  thus  we  find  a rapid  growth  of  Hellenism  and  Hellenic  culture 
on  the  Eastern  side  of  the  Aegean  Sea.  Signs  of  this  had  not  indeed 


been  wanting  in  the  fourth  century,  in  which  we  saw  that  the  great 
masters,  such  as  Skopas  and  Praxiteles,  devoted  a considerable  portion 
of  their  activities  to  the  production  of  works  of  art  for  the  great  cities 
of  Asia  Minor,  such  as  Ephesus,  Knidos,  and  Halikarnassos,  and  even 
as  far  as  Si  don.  Thus  the  foundation  was  laid  for  the  reception  of  the 
new  influences  which  the  conqueror  brought  in  his  train,  and  thus  it  is 
that  as  Alexandria  succeeded  Athens  as  the  home  of  Greek  literature, 
so  we  find  in  Asia  Minor,  no  longer  in  Athens,  Argos  or  Sikyon,  the 
centre  of  the  chief  masterpieces  of  art. 

Hence  in  the  Hellenistic  period,  as  the  two  centuries  from  320  b.c. 
to  146  B.c.  are  usually  called,  we  find  that  the  pre-eminent  schools  of 
sculpture  are  associated  with  the  city  of  Pergamon  and  the  island  of 
Rhodes,  both  being  politically  independent  and  active  centres  of 
culture.  The  school  of  Pergamon  centres  round  the  names  of  its 
rulers  Attalos  and  Eumenes  i.  and  ii.,  all  of  whom  were  great  patrons 
both  of  art  and  literature,  and  many  of  its  productions  are  connected 
with  historical  events,  such  as  the  inroad  of  the  Gauls  in  279-240  b.c. 
Both  this  and  the  Rhodian  school  lasted  for  several  generations,  and 
in  the  Pergamene  school  we  may  distinguish  two  periods,  the  first 
from  240  to  197  under  Attalos,  the  second  from  197  to  160  under 
Eumenes.  Other  schools  of  less  importance  are  associated  with 
Ephesus  and  Tralles. 

The  inroads  of  the  Gauls  from  Central  Europe  into  Greece  and 
Asia,  which  had  begun  with  their  attack  on  Delphi  and  repulse  (owing, 
it  was  said,  to  the  miraculous  intervention  of  Apollo)  in  279-278  b.c., 
culminated  in  their  defeat  by  Attalos  in  a great  battle  at  Pergamon  in 
241,  after  which  they  were  driven  to  settle  apart  in  Galatia.  This 
victory,  which  signalised  his  accession  to  the  throne,  was  regarded  with 
special  significance  as  the  first  successful  repulse  of  the  invaders, 
and  although  they  were  not  actually  reduced  to  submission  until  166 
B.C.,  under  Eumenes  ii.,  it  had  the  effect  of  firmly  establishing  the 
Pergamene  dynasty.  One  immediate  result  thereof  was  that  Attalos 
appears  to  have  imported  a school  of  sculptors  from  Greece  with  a 

129 


G.  A. — 9 


GREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 


view  of  erecting  a series  of  monuments  to  commemorate  it.  These 
statues,  which  were  of  bronze,  have  disappeared,  but  many  of  the  bases 
witli  their  dedicatory  inscriptions  remain;  and,  moreover,  there  exist 
various  marble  statues  wliich  from  style  and  subject  can  be  recognised 
as  replicas  of  these  Pergamene  dedications.  The  best  known  of  these 
is  the  familiar  ‘ Dying  Gaul  ’ of  the  Capitol  at  Rome,^  popularly  but 
inaccurately  styled  tlie  ‘ Gladiator,’  for  the  propagation  of  which  error 
Byron  has  been  mainly  responsible. 

Pliny  gives  the  names  of  four  sculptors  who  fashioned  statues 
relating  to  this  battle  ; the  subjects  represented  were  : a battle  of  Gods 
and  Giants,  a battle  of  Greeks  and  Amazons,  and  combats  of  Greeks 
with  Persians  and  Gauls.  Some  of  these,  including  the  originals  of 
the  Dying  Gaul,  and  a kindred  group  of  a Gaul  slaying  his  wife  (of 
which  a copy  exists  in  the  \Tlla  Ludovisi  at  Rome),  were  set  up  at 
Pergamon  ; but  others,  as  we  learn  from  Pausanias,  were  dedicated  at 
Athens  and  placed  against  the  south  wall  of  the  Acropolis.  Marble 
copies  from  this  latter  group  have  been  identified,  about  forty  in  all,  at 
Paris,  Naples,  ^"enice,  and  elsewhere;  and  the  motives  have  also  been 
reproduced  in  small  bronzes,  some  good  examples  of  which  may  be 
seen  in  the  British  IMuseum. 

In  these  monuments  we  have  for  the  first  time  Historical  Art — 
not  symbolical,  as  in  Oriental  monuments,  but  realistic  records  of  con- 
temporary events.  Differences  of  nationality  are  expressed  by  the 
different  types  of  face — an  outcome  of  the  individualism  of  the  fourth 
century  and  the  rise  of  portrait-sculpture.  Thus  in  the  Dying  Gaul 
we  see  the  unmistakable  indications  of  a barbarian,  in  the  rough 
matted  hair,  the  moustache,  and  the  collar  or  tore  of  twisted  gold 
round  his  neck,  as  well  as  in  the  shape  of  his  shield.  The  anatomical 
details  are  executed  with  almost  Lysippian  truth  and  vigour,  and  the 
whole  conception  shows  that  the  Greek  of  the  period  could  feel 
admiration  for  the  courage,  and  pity  for  the  fate,  of  his  fallen  foe. 
Though  less  generally  known,  the  companion  group  of  the  Gaul  and 
his  wife  is  hardly  inferior;  a highly  dramatic  conception,  it  is  yet 
unaffected  by  the  exaggerated  realism  of  later  times. 

In  the  sets  of  figures  dedicated  at  Athens,  there  seems  to  be  an 
attempt  to  reproduce  something  of  the  fifth-century  spirit  which  sym- 
bolised contemporaneous  victories  over  barbarians  by  representations 
of  analogous  mythical  events  ; all  the  subjects  are  chosen  with  the 
same  end  in  view,  to  typify  or  represent  the  ascendancy  of  civilisation 

^ Plate  LI  I. 


130 


PLATE  LI II 


PLATE  LIV 


I HK  T.AOCOON  (’.ROITI 

(VATICAN,  Rome) 


THE  ALTAR  OF  ZEUS 


over  barbarism.  Among  the  copies  of  which  mention  has  been  made, 
it  is  curious  to  note  that  all  represent  the  conquered  race,  none  the 
victorious ; but  the  reason  is  unknown.  In  spite  of  their  small  size 
— they  average  about  three  feet  in  height — they  are  all  of  remarkable 
excellence,  with  a great  variety  of  motive  and  pose,  in  which  the  same 
ethnological  characteristics  predominate  which  were  observed  in  the 
statues  of  the  Gauls  described  above. 

In  the  year  197  n.c.  Eumenes  ii.,  who  had  succeeded  his  father 
Attains,  set  about  the  further  adornment  of  the  city  of  Pergamon  by 
the  erection  of  many  magnificent  buildings  and  monuments.  Among 
these  the  greatest  was  tlie  altar  of  Zeus,  one  of  the  chief  wonders  of 
the  ancient  world,  and  possibly  referred  to  in  tlie  Apocalypse  as 
^ Satan’s  seat.’  It  consisted  of  a huge  base  about  100  feet  square,  on 
which  stood  the  altar,  in  a court  surrounded  by  a colonnade.  This 
was  approached  by  a wide  staircase,  occupying  part  of  the  west  side. 
It  was  adorned  with  two  sculptured  friezes,  a smaller  one  round  the 
inside  of  the  colonnade  and  a larger  one  round  the  base  ; these  have 
been  excavated  by  German  explorers,  and  are  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 

The  great  frieze  represents  a battle  of  the  Gods  and  Giants,  and 
exemplifies  the  art  of  the  younger  Pergamene  school.  The  subject 
was  probably  chosen  as  typifying  the  struggles  of  the  people  against 
the  savage  Gauls,  and,  as  we  have  seen  before,  was  one  of  the  favourite 
themes  of  Greek  art,  especially  for  commemorative  monuments.  The 
colossal  size  of  the  figures — they  are  over  seven  feet  in  height — the 
elaborate  and  vigorous  conceptions,  and  the  marvellous  technical  skill 
displayed,  combine  to  render  this  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and 
imposing  examples  of  Greek  art  which  we  possess.  At  the  same  time, 
the  general  effect  it  produces  is  one  of  fatiguing  restlessness,  and,  in 
spite  of  the  dramatic  action  and  powerful  figures,  it  fails  to  give  the 
aesthetic  pleasure  that  we  find  in  contemplating  the  friezes  of  fifth- 
eentury  art.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  most  typical  presentment  of  the 
cliaracteristics  of  decadent  Greek  art  which  we  see  further  emphasised 
in  the  I^aocoon  (p.  133).  The  sculptor  is  carried  away  by  the  desire  to 
depict  emotion,  and  by  his  mastery  of  technical  difficulties  the  religious 
significance  of  his  theme  is  lost  sight  of,  and  idealism  entirely  gives 
place  to  realism. 

The  whole  scene  is  a confused  mass  of  struggling  giants,  from  which 
their  divine  opponents  can  hardly  be  disentangled ; but  the  variety  of 
motive  is  astonishing,  and  some  of  the  groups  show  undoubted  power 

131 


GREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 


and  originality.  The  two  finest  figures  are  perhaps  those  of  Zeus  and 
Athena,  the  former  of  whom  overpowers  no  less  than  three  giants  with 
his  thunderbolts,  while  Athena,  aided  by  her  serpent,  grasps  her 
adversary  by  the  hair,  as  he  sinks  helplessly  before  her.  Another 
dramatic,  if  somewhat  bizarre,  figure  is  that  of  the  goddess  (whose 
identification  is  uncertain)  engaged  in  hurling  a pot  full  of  snakes  on 
her  opponent.  Put  the  figure  which  most  appeals  to  us  is  perhaps  that 
of  the  Earth-mother  Gaia,  who  is  seen  emerging  from  the  ground  and 
appealing  passionately  to  Athena  to  preserve  her  offspring.^  The 
number  of  deities  engaged  in  the  strife  is  almost  endless,  yet  nearly 
every  one  can  be  distinguished  by  attributes  or  other  motives,  while  in 
the  case  of  the  giants  we  find  almost  the  same  variety  of  form  ; some 
are  merely  gigantic  human  beings,  but  others  are  veritable  monsters, 
with  wings,  and  legs  terminating  in  serpents,  or  even  half  human,  half 
lions. 

The  altar  was  probably  erected  between  180  and  170  B.c.,  but  the 
names  of  the  artists  are  unknown,  though  they  were  undoubtedly 
inscribed  on  the  monument.  In  this  respect  we  are  more  fortunate 
when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  Rhodian  school,  which  has  left  several 
individual  names. 


The  Rhodian  school  of  sculpture  was  largely  influenced  by  Lysippos, 
who  re-introduced  the  making  of  colossal  figures,  and  whose  pupil 
Chares  attained  to  distinction  as  the  artist  of  the  world- famed  Colossus 
of  Rhodes  ; he  was  a native  of  Lindos  in  that  island.  This  statue  was 
10.5  feet  high,  and  was  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world ; it  was 
set  up  in  303  b.c.,  but  was  overthrown  by  an  earthquake  sixty  years 
later  and  never  re-erected.  We  have  no  information  as  to  its  appear- 
ance, except  that  it  represented  Helios,  the  Sun-god,  who  was  the 
especial  patron  of  the  city,  but  we  can  be  certain  that  it  did  not 
bestride  the  harbour  holding  a lantern  ! Pliny  tells  us  that  there  were 
a hundred  more  Colossi  in  Rhodes  alone. 

The  island  reached  a great  height  of  prosperity  in  the  Hellenistic 
period,  and  doubtless  attracted  sculptors  from  all  parts.  The  list  of 
names  gleaned  from  inscriptions  falls  into  two  periods,  but  the  only 
one  in  the  earlier  period  of  whom  we  know  anything  is  Aristonidas, 
who  made  a statue  in  which  a blush  was  represented  by  mixing  iron 
with  the  bronze.  Like  the  story  of  Seilanion’s  Jocasta,  this  is  obviously 
an  impossibility  (see  p.  C8). 

* See  for  this  group  Plate  i.ui. 


132 


THE  RHODIAN  SCHOOL 

The  later  group  of  sculptors  is  rendered  illustrious  by  a work  which 
has  acquired  a reputation  second  to  no  monunient  of  antiquity,  though 
perhaps  beyond  its  actual  deserts.  We  speak  of  the  famous  Laocoon 
group,  the  work  of  Agesandros,  Polydoros,  and  Atlienodoros,  which  is 
assigned  to  the  beginning  of  the  first  century  n.c  d It  is  therefore, 
strictly  speaking,  a work  of  the  Roman  period,  but  artistically  repre- 
sents a purely  Greek  development  of  sculpture.  In  regard  to  its  date 
there  has  been  much  controversy  in  the  past,  owing  to  a misunder- 
standing of  a passage  in  Pliny  which  seemed  to  imply  that  it  was  a 
work  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Titus,  in  whose  palace  it  was  placed; 
but  recent  criticism  has  been  unanimous  in  its  conclusions.  Its  fame 
in  modern  times  has  been  chiefly  due  to  Lessing’s  well-known  essay  ; 
but  with  our  present  knowledge  of  ancient  art,  we  should  be  slow  to 
accept  either  his  conclusions  or  those  of  Pliny,  who  thought  it  the 
irreatest  work  of  art  in  existence. 

The  Laocoon  represents  a step  beyond  the  Pergamene  frieze  in  the 
direction  of  dramatic  conception  and  naturalism,  and  in  the  increased 
attention  paid  to  anatomical  realism.  A question  which  has  always  been 
discussed  in  connection  with  it  from  the  days  of  Lessing  is  its  relation 
to  the  description  of  the  same  subject  by  Virgil.  But  we  know  now, 
at  all  events,  that  the  poet  did  not  inspire  the  group;  nor,  on  the  other 
hand,  does  it  seem  likely  that  he  made  use  of  it ; the  discrepancies  are 
too  many.  Both  poet  and  sculptor  must  have  had  recourse  to  a 
common  original,  and  we  also  know  that  Sophocles  composed  a tragedy 
on  this  theme.  All  that  need  be  said  further  in  reference  to  the  group 
is  that  it  is  a wonderful  study  of  physical  agony  and  terror,  but  that  all 
true  artistic  feeling  seems  to  be  subordinated  to  technical  skill. 

Two  other  Asiatic  schools  of  sculpture  are  represented  by  works 
of  art  to  which  names  of  artists  are  attached,  those  of  Tralles  and 
Ephesus.  Apollonios  and  Tauriskos  of  Tralles,  who  lived  early  in  the 
first  century  b.c.,  made  a group  known  as  the  Farnese  Bull,  which, 
like  the  Laocoon,  was  removed  to  Rome,  and  there  preserved  to  this 
day.  The  subject,  which  is  really  far  too  dramatic  for  sculpture, 
represents  Zethos  and  Amphion  of  Thebes  punishing  their  step-mother 
Dirke  by  fastening  her  to  a bull.  The  group  has  all  the  characteristics 
of  a picture,  the  scene  taking  place  on  rocky  ground,  and  the  elements 
of  a landscape  being  introduced  in  the  shape  of  plants  and  various 
animals,  as  well  as  a small  seated  figure  supposed  to  personify  IMount 
Kithairon,  on  which  the  action  takes  place.  In  the  methods  of  com- 


^ Plate  Liv. 


R38 


(IREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 


position,  and  in  the  technical  skill  exhibited,  this  group  forms  a close 
parallel  to  the  Laocoon.  F rom  the  school  of  Ephesus  comes  the  well- 
known  Rorghese  warrior  in  the  Louvre,  made  by  Agasias,  and  formerly 
known  as  a gladiator.  It  represents  a nude  warrior  with  shield  (now 
lost)  on  his  outstretched  arm,  apparently  attacking  a horseman.  It  is 
chiefly  remarkable  as  a study  in  anatomy,  and  exemplifies  the  latest 
development  of  the  athletic  schools  of  Greece. 

We  must  now  turn  our  attention  to  a series  of  statues  which, 
though  they  cannot  be  referred  to  any  definite  artist  or  school,  are  yet 
typical  of  all  that  is  best  and  most  characteristic  in  Hellenistic  art. 
Foremost  among  them  is  the  Aphrodite  of  IMelos,^  more  generally,  but 
somewliat  inaccurately,  known  as  the  A'enus  of  Milo,  a statue  which 
has  been  considered,  and  not  without  reason,  as  the  most  beautiful  in 
existence.  Its  beauty,  however,  is  almost  entirely  lost  in  the  plaster 
reproductions  with  which  we  are  familiar,  and  it  must  be  seen  at  the 
I^ouvre  in  all  the  lustre  of  its  glistening  marble  for  a full  appreciation 
of  its  merits.  There  is  in  fact  so  much  of  fifth-century  feeling  about 
the  statue  that  it  at  first  sight  suggests  a much  earlier  date,  and  it  is 
with  reluctance  that  we  accept  the  external  evidence  which  forces  us 
to  place  it  so  late  as  the  end  of  the  second  century.'^ 

The  original  motive  of  the  lost  arms  has  always  been  one  of  the 
problems  of  archaeology,  and  though  endless  suggestions  have  been 
proposed,  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  problem  is  anywhere  near  solution. 
The  clue  may,  however,  be  sought  among  the  terra-cotta  figures  of  the 
Hellenistic  period  from  Sicily  and  Southern  Italy,  many  of  which 
represent  Aphrodite  in  various  poses  and  with  various  attributes.^ 
Though  it  is  not  invariably  the  case,  it  is  yet  possible  that  some  of 
these  types  may  be  referred  back  to  sculptured  originals,  such  as  this 
one.  It  is  at  all  events  clear  that  the  sculptor  was  an  eclectic,  who 
endeavoured  to  combine  fifth -century  simplicity  and  dignity  with 
features  more  typical  of  his  own  age,  sucli  as  the  nude  torso  and  the 
conventional  drapery  round  the  lower  limbs ; nor  is  the  somewhat 
sensuous  charm  of  Praxiteles  altogether  wanting. 

The  Apollo  Relvedere  of  the  ^h^tican  is  another  famous  statue 

* See  Frontispiece. 

“ The  recent  theory  of  M.  Salomon  lleinach  must  not  be  ignored,  in  whicli  he  has  put  forward 
the  view,  based  on  an  inscription  in  tlie  Louvre,  that  the  statue  is  really  an  Amphitrite,  forming 
a pair  with  the  well-known  Poseidon  from  Melos.  If  this  view  is  correct,  it  will  he  possible,  from 
the  lettering  of  the  inscription,  to  date  the  two  statues  about  a80-3o0  k.c.  See  Comptes-Bcridus  de 
fAcnd.  des  Inscr.s.,  1!)00,  p.  403.  ^ Cf.  Plate  lxxvii. 

134 


I H K N I KI-.  ( )1'  S.WK  I I H R A( 

(I.OUVKK) 


PLATE  LT 


. 


liKOiN'ZK  S'l.VIL’l-:  1K().\I  K\'I'HKKA 

(ATHENS  MLSEUiM) 


THE  NIKE  OF  8A  MO  THRACE 

which  in  former  times  stood  for  one  of  the  representative  examples  of 
Greek  art,  but  it  has  now  been  more  properly  estimated.  Nevertheless 
it  is  a first-rate  work  of  its  kind.  The  Vatiean  statue  is  not  indeed  an 
original,  being  of  marble,  whereas  it  is  elear,  both  from  the  modelling 
and  from  the  treatment  of  the  drapery,  which  is  strictly  impossible  in 
marble,  that  the  original  was  of  bronze.  Although  there  are  remains 
of  his  bow  in  the  left  hand,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  god  was 
represented  in  the  aet  of  shooting;  the  pose  of  the  right  hand,  with  its 
unstudied  ease,  implies  that  no  particular  action  is  intended,  unless  he 
may  be  eonceived  as  having  just  let  fly  his  arrow.  A companion  statue 
is  to  be  found  in  the  Artemis  of  Versailles  in  the  Louvre,  a figure 
with  many  similar  charaeteristies.  Both  are  elearly  produets  of  the 
Hellenistic  age,  and  some  writers  have  seen  in  the  conception  of  the 
Apollo  a reference  to  the  story  of  his  personally  repelling  the  attacks 
of  the  Gauls  on  his  sanctuary  at  Delphi.  This  event  took  place  in 
279  n.c. 

iModern  discoveries  of  works  of  the  Hellenistic  period  have  not 
been  as  numerous  as  those  of  an  earlier  age,  but  one  in  particular 
takes  high  rank  for  its  artistic  merit.  This  is  the  Nike  (Victory)  of 
Samothrace,  now  in  the  Louvre,^  a statue  which  seems  to  have  had  a 
considerable  reputation  in  antiquity,  as  reproductions  of  it  appear  on 

coins  of  the  third  century.  It  is  earlier  in  date  than  most  of  the 

•/ 

works  discussed  in  this  section,  for  although  no  record  of  its  artist 
remains,  we  know  that  it  was  set  up  by  Demetrios  Poliorketes  to 
celebrate  a naval  victory  in  306  b.c.  The  custom  of  setting  up  such 
figures  to  commemorate  victories  had  long  been  familiar  to  the  Greeks, 
as  we  saw  from  the  Nike  of  Paionios. 

The  goddess  was  represented  standing  on  the  prow  of  a ship, 
blowing  a trumpet  and  holding  a trophy ; the  head  and  arms,  with 
part  of  the  wings,  are  now  wanting,  but  there  is  much  to  admire  in 
what  remains,  in  the  beautiful  sweep  of  the  drapery  which  is  blown 
close  round  her  body  by  the  wind,  and  floats  out  beyond  on  her  left 
side.  As  a study  of  a figure  in  rapid  motion  it  would  leave  nothing 
to  be  desired  were  it  not  that  a certain  want  of  repose — one  might 
almost  say  sensationalism — mars  the  effect,  and  causes  it  to  suffer  by 
comparison  with  the  work  of  Paionios  and  other  analogous  figures  of 
fifth  century  style. 

This  account  would  not  be  complete  without  some  mention  of  the 
now  historic  find  of  statues  dredged  up  off  the  island  of  Cerigo 

^ Plate  Lv. 


135 


GREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 


(Ivythera)  in  1901.  Their  artistic  merit  has  perhaps  been  somewhat 
over-rated,  but  large  Greek  bronzes  are  too  rare  to  be  passed  over,  and 
one  figure  at  all  events  may  take  rank  among  tlie  best  sculptures  which 
liave  been  preserved.  This  is  the  athletic  figure  with  outstretched 
hand,  the  head  of  which  in  style  and  pose  reminds  us  not  a little  of 
the  Praxitelean  Hermes,  though  the  statue  is  probably  from  the 
Lysippian  school.^  Except  the  lower  part,  it  is  in  very  fair  preserva- 
tion ; the  motive  of  the  hand  is  as  yet  unexplained,  and  numerous 
attempts  to  identify  the  figure  have  been  made.  A special  interest 
attaches  to  this  find  from  the  strong  probability  that  it  is  part  of  a 
loot  of  works  of  art  made  by  the  Roman  conqueror  Sulla  from  Athens 
in  84-83  b.c.,  the  ship  containing  this  set  of  statues  having  been 
wrecked  on  its  homeward  voyage  (p.  55). 

An  interesting  tendency  of  the  Hellenistic  Age  is  towards  personi- 
fication of  a local  kind.  This  principle  indeed  is  not  strange  to  Greek 
art  at  any  stage  of  its  development,  from  the  personified  abstractions 
of  the  Homeric  and  Hesiodic  shields  downwards.  Even  on  the 
painted  vases  we  see  female  figures  representing  cities  such  as  Thebes 
or  Eleusis,  and  in  fifth-century  art  there  are  the  local  personifications 
of  the  Parthenon  pediments.  But  with  the  exception  of  Victory  and 
a few  other  deities  of  the  kind,  abstract  personifications  are  not  found 
in  plastic  art  before  the  fourth  century.  Then  the  lists  of  works  of 
Praxiteles,  Skopas,  and  Kephisodotos  furnish  us  with  many  instances. 
But  in  the  Hellenistic  Age  we  meet  with  a new  development,  which 
is  illustrated  by  a statue  of  considerable  merit. 

Early  in  the  third  century  the  sculptor  Eutychides,  a pupil  of 
Lysippos,  made  for  the  city  of  Antioch  a figure  supposed  to  repre- 
sent that  city,  but  more  individually  personified  as  the  Tyche  or 
Fortune  of  the  place.  She  was  represented  seated  on  a rock,  from 
below  which  emerged  the  local  river  Orontes,  personified  as  a young 
man  swimming ; in  one  hand  she  held  some  ears  of  corn,  and  on  her 
head  was  the  conventional  mural  crown  appropriate  to  cities.  The 
figure  is  almost  allegorical  in  the  manner  in  which  the  geographical 
situation  of  the  city  is  here  expressed.  A copy  of  the  statue  exists  in 
the  ^^atican,  and  suffices  to  give  some  idea  of  the  grace  and  charm  of 
the  original. 

In  another  direction  Hellenistic  sculpture  aimed  at  simplicity  and 
playfulness  of  motive,  in  a series  of  genre  figures,  chiefly  of  children 

^ See  Plate  lvi. 


13G 


HELLENISTIC  SCULPTURE 


at  play.  The  principal  representative  of  this  school  was  Boethos  of 
Carthage,  who  made  several  statues  of  children  playing  with  birds, 
such  as  ducks  or  geese.  Our  museums  are  rich  in  figures  of  this  kind, 
which,  if  not  from  originals  by  Boethos,  yet  reflect  the  motives  of 
which  he  made  use  ; there  is  in  particular  one  in  tlie  Louvre  of  a boy 
struggling  with  a goose  almost  of  his  own  size,  which  is  full  of  playful 
humour^ ; and  even  more  delightful  is  a little  figure  found  in  the  lake 
of  Nemi,  of  a boy  who  has  succeeded  in  imprisoning  a duck  under  his 
hand,  and  then,  smitten  with  sudden  fear,  stretches  out  his  other  hand 
imploring  assistance.  Not  the  least  notable  feature  of  these  figures  is 
that  the  fourth-century  incapacity  for  re})roducing  accurately  a child’s 
proportions  and  physiognomy  has  cpiite  disappeared.  These  playful 
children  may  be  said  to  foreshadow  the  chubby,  sportive  amoretti  of 
Pompeian  art.  Of  the  same  character  is  a bronze  statuette  of  Eros 
holding  a torch,  now  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Pierpont  Morgan. 
It  is  nearly  life-size,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  beautiful  patina 
(see  p.  69).^ 

The  tendencies  of  the  age  are  also  exhibited  in  a series  of  reliefs,  or 
rather  ‘pictures  in  relief’  as  they  have  been  termed,  carved  on  panels 
intended  to  be  let  into  walls.  In  them  we  see  reflected  the  literary 
and  artificial  tendencies  of  the  Hellenistic  period,  which  recall  the 
eighteenth  century  with  its  pastoral  poetry  and  conventional  art  in 
figures  and  landscapes.  The  peculiarly  pictorial  treatment  of  these 
reliefs  is  seen  especially  in  the  backgrounds,  which  are  either  architec- 
tural or  rural,  or  a combination  of  the  two  ; the  subjects  in  the  fore- 
ground include  country  scenes,  such  as  herdsmen,  or  peasants  and 
animals,  and  mythological  figures : Satyrs  and  Maenads,  Polyphemos, 
or  Adonis.  The  choice  of  subjects  and  the  refined,  minute  method  of 
treatment  at  once  recall  the  Idylls  of  Theocritus,  the  town-poet  of 
country  life.  We  may  also  compare  the  metal-work  of  the  period, 
of  which  the  chased  cup  which  Theocritus  describes  in  his  first  Idyll 
is  an  example,  and  the  reliefs  are  additionally  valuable  for  the  light 
tliey  throw  on  the  character  of  Greek  painting  at  this  time  (see 
p.  159).  An  example  of  these  reliefs  in  the  British  JMuseum,  repre- 
senting the  visit  of  Dionysos  to  a tragic  poet,  is  here  illustrated.^ 
The  architectural  background,  in  spite  of  its  faulty  perspective,  well 
shows  its  pictorial  character.  These  reliefs  also  had  considerable 
influence  on  the  paintings  of  Pompeii,  some  of  which  recpiire  little 
effort  to  convert  tliem  back,  so  to  speak,  into  bas-relief. 

^ See  Plate  lvii.,  and  cf.  Plate  cxi. 


Ihid. 


^ Plate  Lviii. 

137 


GREEK  SCULPTURE  AFTER  PHEIDIAS 

The  year  146  li.c.  was  a memorable  year  in  the  history  of  Greece, 
when  Corinth  was  sacked  by  IMummius,  and  enormous  numbers  of 
works  of  art  were  destroyed  or  carried  off  to  Rome.  It  is,  of  course, 
in  no  sense  accurate  to  say  that  Greek  Art  then  came  to  an  end  and 
Roman  Art  began ; art  in  Greece  proper  had  been  dormant  for  a 
century  and  a half,  and  during  that  time  Asia  JMinor  had  become  the 
centre  of  culture,  while,  secondly,  we  have  seen  that  in  Asia  Minor 
these  schools  of  purely  Hellenic,  if  decadent,  art  continued  to  flourish 
for  about  a century  longer.  Nevertheless  to  fix  this  date  as  the 
limit  of  a history  of  Greek  Art  is  not  so  absurd  as  it  may  seem  ; it 
was  after  the  events  of  this  year  that  Greece  became  a Roman 
province,  and  all  subsequent  efforts  of  Greek  artists  were  devoted 
to  the  service  of  their  new  masters.  With  the  migration  of  many 
of  the  most  celebrated  works  of  art  to  Rome,  and  the  formation  of 
new  schools  for  the  purpose  of  reproducing  these  works  in  copies,  the 
era  of  Graeco-Roman  art  may  fairly  be  said  to  have  opened ; and  it 
therefore  seems  more  appropriate  to  close  at  this  point  the  record  of 
the  achievements  of  Greek  sculpture. 


138 


( HILI)  AND  C.OOSK,  AFI  KK  I’.OK'I  HOS 

(VATICAN) 

2.  KROS  WITH  TORCH 

(lIKKI'ONI  MOKCIAX  C(  >I  I,  FC  I' IO\) 


CHAPTER  VIII 


GREEK  PAINTING 

lechnical  methods — Early  history  of  painting — Literary  records — Painting  in 
Ionia  and  at  Corinth — Attic  tombstones — Polygnotos — Apollodoros^  Zeuxis,  and 
Parrhasios — The  fourth-century  schools — Apelles  and  Protogenes — Painting  in 
the  Hellenistic  Age — Landscapes  and  gc;//c-s objects — Etruscan  paintings. 

IN  the  writings  of  ancient  authors  who  deal  with  the  subject  of  art 
we  find  almost  as  much  attention  paid  to  painting  as  to  sculpture  ; 
and  in  fact  fuller  details  of  the  life  and  works  of  some  painters, 
such  as  Zeuxis  and  Apelles,  than  of  the  great  sculptors  like  Pheidias  or 
Polykleitos.  This  fiict  would  seem  to  indicate  that  in  later  antiquity 
at  all  events  painting  was  placed,  if  not  on  a higher  level  than  the 
sister  art,  at  least  on  an  equality  with  it ; and  this  in  spite  of  the 
undoubted  tendency  of  the  Greeks  to  prefer  plastic  forms  as  the 
medium  for  expressing  their  artistic  ideas.  For  us  moderns,  however, 
the  question  whether  the  verdict  of  the  ancient  critics  was  justified 
remains  insoluble,  inasmuch  as  all  the  masterpieces  of  ancient  painting 
have  perished ; and  though  our  list  of  genuine  original  sculptures  may 
be  small  and  fragmentary,  there  yet  remains  enough  to  work  out  and 
establish  the  chain  of  development  which  we  have  indicated  in  the 
foregoing  chapters. 

The  subject  of  Greek  painting  cannot  then  be  treated  with  the 
same  fulness  or  accuracy  of  knowledge  as  that  of  sculpture ; all  the 
material  at  our  command,  apart  from  literary  records,  consists  of  the 
productions  of  minor  craftsmen  such  as  vase-painters,  or  the  frescoes 
and  wall-paintings  of  Home  and  Pompeii,  which  at  best  are  but  a 
reflection  of  the  achievements  of  the  great  masters,  standing  hardly  as 
near  to  their  originals  as  do  the  Graeco-Homan  copies  of  flimous 
statues.  In  the  present  chapter  we  must  of  necessity  confine  ourselves 
mainly  to  the  literary  evidence,  noting  what  is  recorded  of  the 
principal  artists.  Such  scanty  remains  of  Greek  paintings  as  do  exist 
will  naturally  receive  due  attention  ; but  in  the  archaic  period  at  any 

139 


GREEK  PAINTING 

rate  the  real  source  of  our  knowledge  is  in  the  evidence  yielded  by  the 
painted  vases,  which  form  the  theme  of  the  succeeding  chapter. 
Altliougli  the  line  of  demarcation  between  works  of  art  and  products 
of  decorative  craftsmen  must  be  carefully  preserved,  it  was  a line  which 
in  the  beginning  was  only  dimly  marked  ; and  in  technical  methods  at 
all  events  the  early  painters  were  little  in  advance  of  the  vase-artists, 
in  whose  developing  powers  we  may  catch  a reflection  of  the  new 
inventions  which  ancient  writers  associate  with  successive  names. 

Greek  paintings  may  be  classified  under  three  main  headings : 
AVall-Paintings,  Easel-Paintings,  and  Encaustic  Work.  To  these 
might  ])erhaps  be  added  a fourth,  that  of  Votive  Tablets,  which,  both 
in  character  and  technique,  form  a link  with  the  minor  art  of  vase- 
painting.  There  is  yet  another  link  in  the  painted  terra-cotta 
sarcophagi  of  Asia  INIinor,  the  principal  source  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
early  Ionic  schools.  Nor  should  we  overlook  the  extensive  use  of 
painting  in  sculpture,  terra-cotta  work,  and  architecture,  although  this 
cannot  be  discussed  within  the  limits  of  the  present  chapter. 

In  the  case  of  the  first  two  classes  the  materials  employed  were 
probably  much  the  same  as  those  used  by  the  modern  painter,  the 
wall-paintings  being  of  the  nature  of  frescoes,  the  easel-paintings  in 
tempera ; while  encaustic  work  answered  more  or  less  to  our  oil- 
paintings,  or  perhaps  miniatures.  Wall-paintings  and  frescoes  date,  as 
we  have  already  seen  (p.  19),  from  the  Mycenaean  period,  although 
Homer  does  not  mention  them,  nor  indeed  have  we  any  further  record 
of  them  until  the  time  of  Polygnotos,  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century.  But  in  the  archaic  tombs  of  Etruria  they  exist  in 
considerable  numbers,  and  these  are  largely  dependent  on  the  influence 
of  Greek  originals.  These,  together  with  the  vases,  the  sarcophagi, 
and  a few  votive  tablets,  form  throughout  the  archaic  period  our  only 
authority  apart  from  vague  literary  traditions ; and  it  is  probably 
correct  to  assume,  as  we  have  already  done,  that  there  was  as  yet  no 
definite  separation  of  art  from  handicraft.  The  art  of  fresco-painting 
was  elevated  and  raised  to  its  highest  level  by  Polygnotos  and  his 
contemporaries,  but  subsequently  it  was  subordinated  to  easel- 
painting, in  which  Zeuxis,  Parrhasios,  and  other  great  masters 
excelled,  being  only  revived  in  the  age  which  produced  the  decorations 
of  the  Pompeian  houses. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  the  two  methods  as  described 
by  classical  writers,  but  it  is  probable  that  for  wall-painting  a ground - 
140 


PLAIE  LI  A’ 


I LATE  LX 


l•..\RI,V  COKIX'I'IIIA.N  l'\l\  ri\(;S: 

1.  N’O'I'IVK  TAl’.LK'r 

(HKKI.IN  .MUSKL’.M) 

2.  I'AIN'J'KI)  MK'iOPK  FROM  THKRMON,  AC'ARNANIA 


TECHNICAL  METHODS 


work  of  wet  stucco  was  usually  employed/  specially  prepared  with 
different  qualities  of  mortar ; the  colours  were  laid  on  with  a brush, 
a medium  being  required  for  certain  pigments.  Easel-paintings  were 
in  water-colour  but  on  a dry  ground,  whitened  wood  tablets  being  a 
favourite  material  (see  p.  144) ; canvas  was  rarely  used  until  late  times, 
as  in  the  mummy-paintings  of  Egypt  under  the  Empire.  Stone  and 
marble  were  also  used  for  paintings,  especially  in  the  form  of  painted 
stelae  or  tombstones,  of  which  a few  early  examples  from  Greece  exist, 
and  others  of  later  date  from  Amathus  in  Cyprus.  Pausanias  describes 
a painted  tombstone  by  Nikias  which  he  saw  at  Tritaea  in  Arcadia." 
A fine  example  of  painting  in  tempera  on  marble  is  to  be  seen  in  a 
sarcophagus  of  about  300  n.c.  found  at  Corneto  in  Etruria,  to  which 
we  shall  return  later  (p.  100).  The  colours  used  for  these  purposes 
were  kept  dry,  and  pounded  and  mixed  in  a mortar  when  required  for 
use.  It  is  easy  to  believe  that  these  paintings  lacked  durability, 
especially  as  there  seems  to  have  been  no  method  of  protecting  them, 
such  as  varnishing,  available. 

We  are  told  by  Pliny  that  certain  of  the  great  painters  (Apelles, 
Action,  Melanthios,  and  Nikomachos)  used  only  four  colours  : white 
Melian  earth,  yellow  or  Athenian  ochre,  red  from  Sinope,  of  which 
there  were  three  varieties,  and  black,  probably  lamp-black  strength- 
ened with  size.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  at  the  stage  which 
painting  had  reached  in  their  time — the  fourth  century — artists  must 
have  had  more  colours  at  their  command.  Probably  all  that  is  meant  is 
that  these  four  formed  the  basis  of  their  combinations,  from  which 
they  obtained  all  that  they  required,  just  as  nowadays  nearly  all  tints 
required  for  water-colours  may  be  obtained  from  the  three  primary 
pigments.  If  the  statement  had  been  made  of  Polygnotos,  it  would 
have  been  more  natural,  and  in  fact  Cicero  does  say  that  he  and  two  of 
his  successors  were  thus  limited.  It  is  difficult  at  first  sight  to 
understand  how,  even  at  that  time,  four  colours  sufficed  for  the 
production  of  great  frescoes,  but  the  achievements  of  the  vase-painters, 
with  whom  drawing  rather  than  colouring  was  always  the  principal 
aim,  show  what  successful  results  could  be  obtained  within  these 
limits.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  white-ground  vases 
(see  p.  179),  in  which  we  see  the  technique  of  the  great  painter  most 
closely  reflected.  And  even  he  was  capable  of  ingenious  combinations 
to  produce  special  effects,  as  in  the  case  of  the  demon  Eurynomos,  who 
was  painted  the  colour  of  a bluebottle  fly. 


^ See  JBliimner,  Tecfinologie,  iv.  p.  482. 


2 vii.  22,  G. 


141 


GREEK  PAINTING 


Tliere  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  some  of  the  great  fifth- 
century  frescoes  were  painted  on  wooden  slabs  affixed  to  walls,  and 
that  tliis  was  a generally-accepted  material  is  further  shown  by  the  fact 
that  Zeuxis,  Parrhasios,  Tiinanthes,  and  Apelles  are  all  said  to  have 
painted  small  pictures  on  wood.  These  are  not  described  by  Pausanias, 
and  may  have  been  removed  to  Italy  before  his  day.  An  interesting 
relic  of  painting  on  wood  is  a small  picture  found  at  Hawara  in 
Egypt,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The  design  indeed  has  almost 
perished,  but  the  frame  of  the  picture  is  intact,  and  bears  a curious 
resemblance  to  the  ‘ Oxford  ’ frames  of  the  present  day. 

Of  encaustic  painting  we  really  know  little,  and  the  accounts  are,  as 
usual,  ambiguous.  The  main  principle  was  the  laying  on  of  colour  by 
means  of  a brush  or  bronze  pencil,  with  a medium  of  heated  liquid 
wax,  with  which  the  colours  were  ground  in ; the  ground  was  usually 
wood,  sometimes  ivory.  AVe  read  of  a lady  of  Cyzicus,  named  Jaia  or 
Laia,  who  painted  miniatures  in  encaustic  on  the  latter  material.  It  was 
regarded  as  a tedious  and  difficult  process,  and  was  only  used  for  small 
pictures ; those  done  on  ivory  may  have  resembled  our  miniatures. 
The  process  may,  it  has  been  suggested,  have  originated  in  Egypt,  the 
climate  of  which  was  better  suited  to  its  practice ; and  as  far  as  our 
evidence  goes,  it  was  introduced  at  a comparatively  late  period.  The 
best,  and  in  fact  almost  the  only  examples  of  the  process  existing  at 
the  present  day  are  the  mummy  portraits  of  later  Imperial  times  found 
in  the  Fayiim  district  of  Egypt.  Of  these  a fine  series  is  in  our  National 
Gallerv. 

The  earliest  traces  of  paintings  found  on  Greek  soil  are,  as  has  been 
noted  in  a former  chapter,  the  Cretan  and  Mycenaean  frescoes  of 
Knossos  and  Tiryns ; but  these  stand  quite  by  themselves,  and  have 
no  bearing  on  the  subsequent  development  of  the  art  in  Greece.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  humbler  line  of  vase-painting  we  are  able  to 
trace  a more  or  less  direct  and  continuous  development  from  the 
rudimentary  attempts  at  painted  decoration,  which  we  have  already 
noted  as  characteristic  of  the  pottery  of  Thera  (p.  15)  as  early  as  2000 
ii.c.  This  Thera  pottery  formerly  represented  the  earliest  attempts  at 
painting  within  our  knowledge,  but  has  now  been  anticipated  in  point 
of  date  by  the  extensive  remains  of  early  Cretan  painted  pottery  which 
are  known  as  Kamarais  or  ‘ Early  JMinoan  ’ ware,  and  belong  to  the 
period  3000-2000  n.c.  These,  which  are  remarkable  for  their  naturalism 
and  brilliancy  of  colour,  are  the  precursors  of  the  Mycenaean  wares, 
142 


LITERARY  EVIDENCE 


which  in  their  turn  probably  exercised  a strong  influence  on  the  early 
art  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Greek  colonies  along  that  coast  represent 
the  chief  settlements  of  the  ‘ Mycenaean  ’ people  after  they  were 
driven  forth  from  their  ancient  strongholds,  and  their  originality  and 
naturalism  left  a lasting  mark  on  their  successors,  who  also  learned 
from  them  many  of  their  technical  processes.  The  same  is  true  in  a 
lesser  degree  of  Cyprus. 

But  it  must  be  left  for  the  succeeding  chapter  to  speak  more  in 
detail  of  early  Greek  achievements  in  this  direction.  We  shall  have 
occasion  to  return  again  to  the  schools  of  painting  in  Ionia ; but  for 
tlie  present  we  must  turn  aside  to  see  what  light  is  thrown  on  the 
origin  of  Greek  painting  by  literary  evidence. 

Homer,  although  familiar  with  embroidery  and  the  inlaying  of 
metal,  implies  no  knowledge  of  painting;  nor  do  other  early  writers 
throw  light  on  the  subject.  Almost  all  the  evidence  is  derived 
from  a few  passages  in  Pliny,  who  collected  his  information  from  earlier 
treatises,  especially  that  of  Xenokrates  of  Sikyon,  who  wrote  about 
280  B.c.  There  are  also  a few  hints  given  by  Aelian,  Athenagoras,  and 
others.  At  first  sight,  these  passages  appear  to  confuse  rather  than  to 
elucidate  the  matter,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  Pliny’s  own  ideas  wei*e 
somewhat  vague,  perhaps  from  misunderstanding  his  authorities.  In 
the  almost  entire  absence  of  actual  paintings  we  shall  generally  find  it 
the  safest  course  to  learn  what  we  can  from  the  vases.  And  we  have 
already  seen  that  in  all  probability  in  early  times  art  was  hardly 
distinguished  from  handicraft,  and  that  the  difference  of  technical 
methods  in  large  and  small  works  cannot  have  been  very  great. 

Pliny,  then,  begins  by  attributing  to  Corinth  or  Sikyon  the  discovery 
of  the  possibility  of  ])roducing  figures  by  outlining  shadows,^  just 
as  Butades  in  the  well-known  story  (p.  74)  invented  reliefs  from  a 
silhouette.  The  next  stage,  he  says,  was  to  fill  in  the  outlines  with 
single  colours,  or  monochrome,  a practice  still  obtaining  in  his  own 
day.  He  next  states  that  either  Philokles,  an  Egyptian,-  or  Kleanthes 
of  Corinth  ‘invented  linear  painting,’  and  that  they  were  followed  by 
Aridikes  of  Corinth  and  Telephanes  of  Sikyon  who,  still  without  using 
colours,  introduced  inner  markings  and  details,  and  inscribed  names 
over  their  figures.  An  innovation  was  made  by  Ekphantos  of  Corinth, 

^ The  theory,  it  has  been  pointed  out,  is  a purely  arbitrary  one  ; outline  does  not  precede 
monochrome,  but  rather  the  contrary,  at  least  as  far  as  the  evidence  of  early  vase-painting  goes. 
See  Jex-lilake  and  Sellers,  Pliny\s  Chapti^r.s  on  Art,  p.  xxix. 

^ I.e.  probably  a Greek  resident  in  Naukratis  or  some  other  colony  in  the  Egyptian  Delta.  If 
so,  he  would  have  been  an  Ionian. 

148 


GREEK  PAINTING 


vviio  covered  his  figures  with  a red  wash,  made  from  pounded 
pottery;  but  this  ])rocess  soon  died  out/  Hygiainon,  Deinias,  and 
Charmadas  are  mentioned  as  painters  in  monochrome.  Advancing  yet 
a step  further,  Eumaros  distinguishes  tlie  sexes  by  introducing  white 
for  female  figures,  thus  marking  the  first  stage  in  the  progress  from 
monochrome  to  polychrome. 

Such  is  Pliny’s  account  of  early  Greek  painting,  from  which  we 
may  learn  certain  facts  at  any  rate : namely,  that  the  earliest  painters 
were  scarcely  painters  at  all  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  but  rather 
draughtsmen,  merely  practising  outline.  The  attainment  of  anything 
like  symmetry  or  rhythm  was  as  yet  beyond  them,  and  they  could  only 
slowly  acquire  mastery  over  their  material,  and  after  that  the  correct 
presentment  of  objects.  Put  the  latter  achievement  belongs  to  a later 
stage. 

AVe  are  told  by  Athenaeus^  that  Kleanthes  of  Corinth  made  a 
picture  of  ‘ Poseidon  offering  a tunny-fish  to  Zeus  in  travail,’  a 
somewhat  unintelligible  theme  at  first  sight,  but  comparison  with 
vase-paintings  (and  with  a passage  in  Strabo)  makes  it  clear  that  the 
subject  of  the  picture  was  the  favourite  one  of  the  birth  of  Athena 
from  the  head  of  Zeus.  On  more  than  one  vase  with  this  subject 
Poseidon  is  one  of  the  deities  present  at  the  event,  holding  the  tunny, 
however,  merely  as  an  attribute,  his  action  having  been  misunderstood 
by  later  writers.  These  vase-paintings  date  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixth  century  b.c.,  and  it  is  hardly  likely  that  Kleanthes  can  have 
been  much  earlier. 

This  is  almost  the  only  early  painting  of  which  we  have  a record 
from  continental  Greece,  but  the  vases  alone  would  suffice  to  show  the 
important  position  held  by  Corinth  in  the  seventh  and  sixth  centuries 
as  an  art- centre.  These  will  be  discussed  in  a subsequent  chapter,  but 
there  are  two  series  of  monuments,  one  found  at  Corinth,  the  other 
connected  therewith,  which  are  even  more  important  for  the  early 
evidence  on  Greek  painting.  The  first  is  a series  of  painted  votive 
tablets  found  in  1879  on  the  slope  of  the  Acrocorinthus,  on  the  site  of 
a shrine  of  Poseidon,  the  patron  deity  of  the  city.^  The  figures  are 
painted  in  black  and  purple  on  a creamy  white  slip,  with  which  the 
tablets  are  covered — the  ‘ whitened  tablets  ’ which  traditionally  formed 


* See  Blumner,  Technoloyie,  iv.  p.  47B. 

2 vii.  84G  c ; cf.  Strabo,  viii.  343;  and  see  Jahrhuch  d.  arch.  Imt.,  1887,  p.  153. 

3 The  best  examples  are  illustrated  in  the  Berlin  Antike  Denkmdler,  i.  pis.  7,  8.  One  of  these 
is  reproduced  on  Plate  lx. 

144 


EARLY  GREEK  PAINTINGS 


the  canvas  of  the  early  painters  such  as  Kraton  of  Sikyon.^  The  use 
of  a purple  or  red  colour  may  perhaps  be  associated  with  the  invention 
attributed  to  Ekphantos ; it  came  in  about  the  seventh  century  b.c., 
and  is  very  general  on  Corinthian  vases.  The  style  of  the  tablets  is 
rude,  yet  full  of  originality,  and  their  date  is  probably  the  first  half  of 
the  sixth  century. 

Most  of  them  bear  representations  of  the  god  himself  with  his 
trident,  sometimes  in  a chariot  with  his  spouse  Amphitrite  ; others 
again  have  interesting  subjects  referring  to  the  ceramic  industry  of  the 
place  : the  digging  out  of  the  clay,  the  making  of  the  vases  on  the 
potter’s  wheel,  or  their  export  over  the  sea  in  ships.  Nearly  all  bear 
inscriptions  : ‘ So-and-so  dedicated  me  to  Poseidon,’ placed  on  them  by 
the  pious  dedicator,  or  ‘ I am  Poseidon’s,’  probably  memoranda  of  the 
temple  officials  for  subsequent  identification.  Tiiese  tablets  are 
invaluable  as  showing  on  a small  scale  what  the  painters  of  the  period 
could  achieve,  and  as  supplementing  the  scanty  literary  records. 

For  the  other  series  we  must  turn  to  the  recently  excavated  site  of 
Thermon  in  Acarnania,  where  a sixth-century  temple  of  early  character 
has  been  unearthed.  The  decoration  of  this  temple  was  largely  in 
terra-cotta,  and  the  metopes  were  of  this  material,  with  painted  designs 
on  a creamy  white  slip,  like  the  tablets  described  above.  Of  these, 
five  have  been  recovered  in  a more  or  less  perfect  condition.  The 
colours  employed  are  black,  white  (for  details),  and  three  shades  of 
red : purple,  terra-cotta,  and  a dark  reddish-brown.  The  subjects  are 
a Gorgon’s  head,  a hunter,  Perseus,  two  women,  and  three  deities 
enthroned.-  That  these  paintings  are  of  Corinthian  origin  is  made 
clear  by  the  presence  of  inscriptions  in  the  alphabet  of  that  city,  as 
well  as  by  other  details,  such  as  the  distinction  of  sex,  women  being 
painted  white  and  men  terra-cotta,  the  use  of  rosettes,  and  other 
analogies  with  Corinthian  vases.^ 

In  Ionia  or  Asia  Minor,  again,  tradition  and  the  monuments  go  hand 
in  hand.  That  a school  of  painting  had  established  a firm  footing  as 
early  as  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  is  shown  by  the  story  of  the 
picture  of  a battle  by  one  Boularchos,  which  Kandaules,  King  of  Lycia, 
purchased  for  its  weight  in  gold.  Two  hundred  years  later,  about  515 
B.C.,  Mandrokles  of  Samos  had  painted  for  him  another  historical 
picture  representing  Dareios  watching  the  passage  of  his  army  over  the 
Bosphorus.  And  we  may  also  see  in  the  names  of  Philokles,  who 

^ Athenafforas,  Leg.  pro  Christo,  17,  293.  ^ The  last-named  is  ^iven  on  Plate  lx. 

^ For  full  description  and  reproduction  in  colour,  see  ’Apx^aio\.,  1903,  p.  71  If.,  with  plates. 

115 


G.  A.— 10 


GREEK  PAINTING 


probably  came  from  the  Ionian  colony  of  Naukratis,  and  Saiirias  of 
Samos,  further  evidence  of  the  importance  of  this  school. 

The  point  which  Ionic  painting  had  reached  in  the  sixth  century  is 
well  marked,  not  only  by  the  numerous  painted  vases  which  can  be 
attributed  to  this  region,  but  by  a group  of  monuments  which  are 
almost  our  only  specimens  of  archaic  Greek  paintings  on  any  consider- 
able scale.  These  are  a series  of  large  terra-cotta  coffins  or  sarcophagi 
found  at  Clazomenae  on  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna,  and  ranging  in  date  from 
about  600  to  500  B.c.  Usually  the  decoration  is  confined  to  the 
broad  flat  rim  of  the  sarcophagus ; but  there  is  a magnificent  example 
in  the  British  Museum,  with  a heavy  gable-shaped  cover,  which  is  almost 
completely  covered  with  paintings  inside  and  out.^  They  consist  of 
battle-scenes,  funeral  games,  and  chariot-races,  groups  of  Sphinxes,  and 
bands  of  ornamental  patterns.  The  smaller  examples  usually  have 
battle-scenes,  friezes  or  groups  of  animals,  and  heads  of  warriors.  It 
has  been  thought  that  in  the  representations  of  battles  we  may  see  a 
reflection  of  the  paintings  just  described. 

The  technique  is  virtually  the  same  as  that  of  the  contemporary 
Ionic  vases,  the  figures  being  painted  in  black  on  a creamy-white 
ground  ; but  they  are  not  entirely  in  silhouette,  the  faces  and  other 
parts  being  often  outlined  in  accordance  with  a favourite  Ionic  prac- 
tice. Incised  lines  and  patches  of  white  paint  are  also  occasionally 
employed  to  show  details.  The  many  points  of  comparison  both  in 
subjects  and  technique  with  the  vases  are  of  immense  importance  for 
the  reconstruction  of  Ionic  art. 

The  earliest  traditions  connected  with  Athens  centre  round  the 
name  of  Eumaros,  the  man  ‘who  first  distinguished  male  and  female.’ 
He  is  also  said  to  have  ‘ ventured  to  imitate  all  sorts  of  figures.’ “ His 
date  is  disputed,  some  placing  him  in  the  time  of  Solon  (about  b.c. 
600-590),  others  more  towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  century.  He  may 
at  all  events  be  connected  with  the  introduction  of  a distinct  pigment 
to  represent  the  flesh  of  women,  like  the  white  used  on  Attic  black- 
figured  vases  (see  p.  173).  The  last  traditional  name,  before  the 
records  become  historical,  is  that  of  Kimon  of  Kleonae  (about  520-500 
B.C.),  who  made  great  advances.  Before  his  time,  says  Aelian,  art 
was  only  in  leading-strings.  In  the  words  of  Pliny,  he  ‘improved 

^ One  of  the  short  sides  is  given  on  Plate  lxi. 

2 The  word  figuras  here  has  also  been  explained  as  meaning  ^positions.’  But  this  reform  is 
more  characteristic  of  Kimon  (see  below). 

146 


rLA  TK  LXi 


f.  - 


f. 


y. 


.AZOM  KXAI'. 


PLATE  LX  11 


ATHKNLW  l•.\INTIN(;S:  TOMHSTONK  OF  lASKAS,  AXD  FAINTKD  TAF.I,KT  W FI  H WARRIOR 


PAINTING  IN  THE  SIXTH  CENTURY 


upon  Eumaros’  inventions,  discovered  foreshortening  {catagi'cipha,  or 
obliquae  imagines)  and  variations  of  expression,  faces  looking  up  or 
down  or  backwards ; he  brought  out  the  anatomy  of  the  limbs,  gave 
prominence  to  the  veins,  and,  further,  discovered  the  way  to  reproduce 
the  folds  of  draperies.’  The  exact  meaning  of  the  term  catagrapha 
has  been  much  disputed  ; ^ but  it  seems  most  probable  that  it  implies 
an  advance  in  theoretical  knowledge  of  linear  perspective,  which  in 
practice  displays  itself  in  a correct  rendering  of  foreshortening,  this 
being  the  most  satisfactory  rendering  of  ohlupiae  imagines,  though 
some  liave  taken  it  to  mean  ‘three-quarter  profile.’  But  this  is  a 
feature  which  we  do  not  find  in  vase-paintings  before  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century.  To  sum  up  in  a few  words  these  successive  stages  of 
development,  the  Athenian  artists,  profiting  by  these  various  ‘ inven- 
tions,’ were  enabled  first  to  distinguish  the  sexes,  then  to  pay  attention 
to  anatomy  and  present  figures  in  all  kinds  of  attitudes,  and  finally,  as 
we  shall  see,  to  turn  their  attention  to  distinguishing  individuals.  Por- 
traiture was  first  introduced  by  Panaenos  in  his  painting  of  the  Battle 
of  Marathon  about  470  b.c. 

The  great  paintings  of  this  period  (550-480  b.c.)  were  probably  out- 
line drawings  with  washes  of  colour.  There  are  two  monuments  at 
Athens  which  are  fairly  illustrative  of  such  a process,  both  dating  from 
the  last  quarter  of  the  sixth  century.  One  is  the  tombstone  of  Lyseas, 
with  his  portrait  painted  in  tempera  on  marble,  holding  a wine-cup  and 
lustral  branch."  The  ground  is  red,  and  the  figure  is  clad  in  a purple 
tunic  and  white  mantle  with  coloured  border ; the  branch  is  green,  the 
cup  black.  The  other  is  a marble  disc  with  the  seated  figure  of  a 
physician  named  Aineos,  painted  in  similar  fashion.  Both  of  these 
show  a great  advance  in  technique  compared  with  the  contemporary 
vases.  With  them  may  be  ranked  a votive  terra-cotta  tablet — ‘ a 
whitened  plaque,’  like  those  of  Kraton — found  on  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens.^  The  design  is  in  black  outlines  on  a cream-coloured  ground, 
witli  accessory  colours,  and  represents  a warrior,  within  a frame  of 
black  and  purple  lines.  His  nude  parts  are  brown,  the  drapery  and 
the  patterns  on  his  armour  black,  and  the  inscription  and  various 
details  in  purple.  This  also  belongs  to  the  end  of  the  sixth  century, 
and  gives  perhaps  the  best  idea  of  the  painting  of  that  time  at  Athens. 
It  may  be  noted  that  the  four  colours  employed  correspond  to  those 
wliich  Polygnotos  is  said  to  have  used  (see  above,  p.  141). 

In  the  Etruscan  tomb-paintings,  which  in  a measure  fill  up  the  gap 

^ Pliny  seems  to  have  thought  that  it  meant  ^profile-drawing.’  ^ Plate  lxii.  ^ Ibid. 

147 


GREEK  PAINTING 


caused  by  the  absence  of  early  Greek  frescoes,  the  traditions  of  Corin- 
thian artists  are  largely  upheld,  bearing  out  the  received  view  that  the 
Etruscans  learned  their  art  from  Corinthian  immigrants  in  the  seventh 
century.  This  nation  was  remarkable  for  its  love  of  colour,  as 
exemplified  in  their  statues  and  architecture,  and  especially  in  the 
decoration  of  their  tombs.  The  earliest  examples  of  painting  are  from 
a tomb  at  Veii,  decorated  with  animals  of  a very  archaic  type,  with 
preternaturally  elongated  proportions ; these  paintings  date  from  the 
seventh  century,  and  closely  resemble  in  style  the  contemporary  Corin- 
thian vases.  A better  and  more  advanced  example  of  Etruscan 
achievement  in  this  line  is  furnished  by  a series  of  slabs  from  tombs 
at  Cervetri  (Caere),  some  of  which  are  in  the  British  Museum,  others 
in  the  Louvre ; they  belong  to  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.^ 

It  is  not  until  we  have  reached  the  stage  at  which  the  art  of 
vase-painting  has  attained  its  zenith  and  almost  begun  to  degenerate 
that  the  history  of  Painting  proper  begins  to  emerge  from  the 
obscurity  of  tradition  into  the  light  of  trustworthy  records.  The 
name  with  which  this  epoch  is  above  all  others  associated  is  that  of 
Polygnotos,  a native  of  Thasos,  who  occupies  the  same  place  in  regard 
to  Painting  as  Pheidias  in  regard  to  Sculpture.  But  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  art  did  not  attain  to  perfection  under  Polygnotos  ; 
the  spirit  of  his  work  is  the  same  idealising  and  ennobling  spirit  which 
characterises  the  contemporary  master,  but  he  had  not,  like  Pheidias, 
the  com2:)lete  mastery  over  technical  processes,  which  in  regard  to 
])ainting  was  not  fully  attained  for  another  century.  His  real 
achievement  was  to  separate  the  art  from  the  handicraft,  and  to 
mark  the  epoch  at  which  the  independent  history  of  Greek  painting 
begins.  Hence  he  was  said  by  one  writer  to  have  ‘ invented  ’ painting. 

The  mere  draughtsmanship — that  is,  the  simple  outlines  filled  in 
with  colour — of  the  early  fifth  century  was  obviously  susceptible  of 
further  improvement.  Much  was  done  by  Polygnotos,  who  permitted 
the  draperies  to  reveal  the  body  beneath,  and  showed  how  to  give 
movement,  not  only  to  the  body  as  Kimon  did,  but  to  the  face. 
Then,  the  capacities  of  this  limited  technique  being  exhausted,  a later 
artist,  as  we  shall  see  (p.  153),  by  discovering  how  to  blend  light  and 
shade,  first  gave  to  objects  their  real  semblance,  thus  contributing  to 
painting  its  most  important  factor,  and  ‘ opening  the  gates  of  art  ’ to 
the  great  masters  Zeuxis  and  Parrhasios. 

^ One  of  the  Museum  slabs  is  given  on  Plate  lxiii. 


148 


W A 1,1. -I 'A  I \ 1 INC 


I K(  ,M  \ I ( i; 

\l  1 ■ l-.l  \l ) 


A I ( ! k\  1,1  K I 


( I'.lv'l  I I'^ll 


Aix'i  :■/./.  r 7./ 


K*(  )M 


V* 


POLYGNOTOS 


As  an  ancient  writer  has  well  expressed  it : ‘In  ancient  paintings 
the  scheme  and  colouring  are  simple,  without  variety  of  tone,  but  the 
lines  are  rendered  with  exquisite  perfection,  thus  lending  to  early 
works  a singular  grace.  This  purity  of  draughtsmanship  was  gradually 
lost,  and  its  place  taken  by  a learned  technique,  by  differentiation  of 
light  and  shade,  and  by  the  full  resources  of  rich  colouring  to  which 
the  works  of  later  artists  owe  their  strength.’^ 

The  impetus  to  the  new  movement  was  given  by  the  changes  at 
Athens  under  Kimon  and  Pericles,  when  public  buildings  were  being 
erected  to  commemorate  great  events  (see  p.  89),  and  it  was  deemed 
appropriate  to  decorate  them  with  great  historical  or  mythological 
compositions,  both  in  marble  and  in  fresco.  Hence  artists  like  Poly- 
gnotos  were  attracted  to  Athens  and  became  public  characters ; his 
artistic  career  extends  over  the  period  from  475  to  430  b.c.,  and  he 
became  the  head  of  a school  which  included  two  otlier  famous  painters, 
IMikon  and  Panaenos.  His  chief  work  was  the  decoration  of  the  Lesche 
or  Assembly  Room,  at  Delphi,  the  subjects  being  the  Sack  of  Troy 
and  a Vision  of  Hades.  Of  these  we  have  a full  description  by  Pau- 
sanias,  which  has  enabled  scholars  (aided  by  carefully-selected  vase- 
paintings)  to  make  a fairly  probable  reconstruction  of  the  whole.^ 

In  the  Trojan  picture  the  central  scene  depicted  the  Greek  heroes 
assembled  to  judge  Ajax  for  his  outrage  on  Kassandra,  who  was  seated 
on  the  ground,  still  clinging  to  the  image  of  Athena  at  which  she  had 
sought  protection.  Troy  appeared  in  the  background,  with  the  head 
of  the  wooden  horse  rising  above  the  walls,  which  were  being  demolished 
by  Epeios.  On  either  side  of  this  scene  were  represented  wild  scenes  of 
destruction : Neoptolemos  pursuing  his  murderous  career,  the  Trojan 
women  lamenting  with  Andromache,  and  Medesikaste  and  Polyxena 
the  daughters  of  Priam.  Priam  is  represented  seated  in  despair,  but 
Helen  preserves  a haughty  aloofness.  Antenor  alone  is  able  to  make  a 
peaceful  departure  with  his  family.  At  one  end  of  the  fresco  IMenelaos 
is  seen  striking  his  tent  and  preparing  for  his  homeward  voyage. 

The  setting  of  the  scene  in  Hades  is  suggested  by  the  eleventh 
book  of  the  Odyssey,  where  Odysseus  conjures  up  the  shades  of  the 
departed,  on  the  shores  of  the  reedy  Acheron,  where  Charon  is  seen  in 
his  bark.  Among  the  company  of  shades  are  many  heroes,  and  typical 
figures  suffering  punishments,  watched  over  by  Eurynomos,  a demon  of 
savage  aspect.  These  include  Tityos,  Tantalos,  and  Sisyphos,  and 

^ See  Jex-Blake  and  Sellers,  Plinijs  Chapters  on  Art,  p.  xxxi. 

. See  especially  C.  Robert’s  Wnpersis  des  Pohppiot  ^\u\  XekpUi  des  Pohjgnot  (Halle,  1892-93). 

149 


GREEK  PAINTING 


those  who,  having  despised  the  Mysteries,  like  Oknos  and  the  Danaids, 
were  doomed  to  an  existence  of  fruitless  toil.  But  there  is  no  strong 
distinction  of  good  and  evil ; rather  do  the  spirits  repeat  in  the  nether 
world  the  character  of  their  life  on  earth.  Thamyris  is  still  blind  ; 
Eriphyle  still  holds  the  necklace  which  she  purchased  with  treachery, 
tiiough  she  suffers  no  punishment ; and  Thersites  plays  at  dice  with  other 
heroes,  or  the  daughters  of  Pandaros  with  knucklebones  (cf.  p.  159).^ 
The  figures  were  arranged  in  friezes  but  at  different  levels,  without 
any  regular  background  or  foreground,  and  each  group  was  quite  dis- 
tinct, though  not  without  its  bearing  on  the  main  subject.  Each  figure 
was  inscribed  with  its  name ; but  details  of  landscape  and  such  like 
were  probably  only  roughly  indicated  by  symbols,  just  as  we  see  on  the 
vases.  In  spite  of  a want  of  pictorial  unity  and  the  limitations  im- 
posed by  architectural  considerations,  the  painter  appears  to  have  been 
able  to  give  full  scope  to  his  powers,  both  in  details  of  style  and  in 
treatment  of  subjects.  We  are  told  that  he  combined  the  strength  and 
firmness  of  archaic  work  with  breadth  of  style  and  feeling  for  subjective 
beauty.  He  was  essentially  a character  - painter,  as  Aristotle  has 
described  him,  and  his  efforts  to  impart  individuality  to  his  figures 
effected  a real  revolution  in  his  art,  at  which  Pliny  hints  when  he  says 
that  Polygnotos  ‘ opened  the  mouth  and  gave  expression  to  the  coun- 
tenance by  abolishing  archaic  stiffness.’  Aristotle  says  that  he  painted 
men  greater  than  they  are,  while  Dionysios  and  Pauson  (two  of  his  con- 
temporaries) painted  them  respectively  as  they  are  and  worse  than  they 
are.^  And  a Greek  epigram  says  of  his  figure  of  Polyxena  in  another 
painting  that  ‘the  whole  Trojan  War  might  be  read  in  her  eyes.’ 

This  was  all  the  more  remarkable,  seeing  that  technical  knowledge 
was  still  so  backward.  The  colours  were,  as  we  have  seen,  limited  to 
four : black,  white,  red,  and  yellow,  with  such  varieties  as  could  be 
obtained  by  mixing  ; but  that  remarkable  effects  could  be  produced 
even  with  these  limited  resources  is  shown  by  the  description  of  the 
grisly  demon  Eurynomos,  who  devoured  the  flesh  of  the  dead  in  Hades, 
and  was  painted  a bluish-black  like  a bluebottle  or  meat-fly.  Again, 
the  colours  were  only  laid  on  in  flat  tints,  without  gradations  and 
without  any  suggestion  of  light-and-shade  effects,  or  of  true  perspec- 
tive. They  produced,  in  fact,  coloured  drawings  rather  than  genuine 
paintings. 

^ See  for  fuller  descriptions  the  account  given  by  Pausanias,  x.  2.5  ff. 

2 Too  much  stress  must  not  be  laid  on  this  comparison,  which  was  also  made  of  the  three  great 
tragic  poets. 

150 


POLYGNOTOS 


Of  the  general  appearance  of  Polygnotos’  paintings,  we  may  prob- 
ably gain  some  idea  from  the  fifth-century  vases  with  polychrome 
designs  on  a white  ground,  such  as  the  beautiful  Aphrodite  cup  in  the 
British  ^luseum  (seep.  180).  But  his  style  and  method  of  composition 
are  better  reflected  in  the  red-figured  vases,  especially  in  those  which 
exhibit  a more  pictorial  treatment,  and  also  in  some  sculptured  monu- 
ments, notably  in  the  GjiUbaschi-Trysa  herooii  (see  p.  112).  A good 
instance  of  Polygnotan  composition  is  in  a fine  krater  in  the  Louvre, 
dating  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  on  which  are  painted 
Apollo  and  Artemis  slaying  the  Niobids  and  a group  of  Argonauts.^ 
It  is  almost  the  earliest  instance  on  a painted  vase  of  figures  grouped 
at  different  levels,  with  indications  of  uneven  ground  and  perspective. 
Another  of  later  date  is  the  Blacas  krater  in  the  British  iNIuseum,  with 
its  beautiful  representation  of  the  sun  rising  and  the  stars  setting  in 
the  sea.“ 

Besides  his  great  works  at  Delphi,  which  belong  to  the  early  part 
of  his  career,^  Polygnotos  assisted  Mikon  and  Panaenos  in  the  decora- 
tion of  the  Stoa  Poikile  and  the  Anakeion  at  Athens,  and  at  a later 
date  painted  pictures  for  the  Pinakotheke  or  Picture  Gallery  in  the 
Propylaea  at  the  entrance  to  the  Acropolis,  erected  about  435  b.c. 
But  of  these  we  know  comparatively  little,  except  for  the  description 
already  quoted  of  the  Polyxena  from  the  Pinakotheke.  The  treatment 
of  this  subject,  the  sacrifice  of  the  maiden,  must  have  been  quite  in 
keeping  with  what  we  know  of  the  more  extensive  composition  at 
Delphi.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  latter  with  the  contemporary 
vases  by  way  of  illustrating  Polygnotos’  special  characteristics. 

In  the  vases,  some  of  which  have  groups  of  scenes  from  the  sack  of 
Troy,  we  note  a preference  for  the  actual  events  of  the  catastrophe  as 
affording  scope  for  effective  groups  in  violent  action,  such  as  the  death 
of  Priam  or  the  seizing  of  Kassandra.  But  Polygnotos  selects  a later 
period  of  time — not  ‘ the  taking  of  Troy,’  but  ‘ Troy  taken,’  as  a French 
writer  phrases  it — and  treats  the  subject  from  the  point  of  view  of 
sentiment  and  pathos.  Thus  we  have  groups  of  captive  Trojan  women 
mourning,  while  by  a contrast  almost  cynical,  Helen,  the  cause  of  all 
their  misfortunes,  sits  adorning  herself  among  her  women.  In  short, 
throughout,  the  contrast  is  maintained  between  the  mourning  Trojans 
and  the  triumphant  Greeks. 

^ The  latter  subject  is  shown  on  Plate  lxiv. 

See  liurlington  Mag(n:lne,  Sept.  11)04,  with  plate  in  colours. 

^ The  Trojan  painting  bore  an  inscription  by  the  poet  Simonides,  who  died  in  n.c.  4G0.  It 
must  be  a few  years  previous  to  that  date. 


151 


GREEK  PAINTING 


Tlie  same  features  may  be  observed  in  the  companion  painting  of 
Hades.  Here  the  peaceful  happiness  of  the  blessed,  and  their  simple 
pleasures,  are  thrown  into  relief  by  the  melancholy  figures  of  the 
damned ; but  the  tortures  of  the  latter  are  not  accentuated  or  treated 
with  the  realism  in  which  Dante,  for  instance,  delights  ; the  painter’s 
object  was  to  show  by  the  expression  the  agonies  of  pain  and  remorse 
which  they  suffered.  Not  action,  but  attitude  and  expression,  are  the 
means  which  he  adopts  to  express  his  conception,  and  his  style  has 
therefore  been  described  as  plastic  rather  than  pictorial. 

Of  his  two  pupils,  Mikon  and  Panaenos,  the  former  was  responsible 
for  the  decoration  of  the  Stoa  Poikile,  or  Painted  Porch,  at  Athens, 
which  was  adorned  with  representations  of  the  Battle  of  Marathon  and 
of  a combat  of  Greeks  and  Amazons  ; also  for  paintings  in  the  temple 
of  Theseus,  with  scenes  from  the  life  of  that  hero.  Panaenos  decorated 
the  rails  and  sides  of  the  throne  of  Pheidias’  Zeus  at  Olympia,  and  we 
may  gather  from  Pausanias’  description  that  his  style  corresponded 
closely  to  that  of  his  master.  But  the  principal  sphere  of  these  three 
painters’  work  was  Athens,  and  it  was  largely  the  Athenian  local 
myths,  such  as  those  of  Theseus,  which  supplied  them  with  subjects. 
They  always  show  strong  instincts  in  the  direction  of  sculpture,  and  by 
their  means  the  Ionic  school  exercised  much  influence  on  the  Attic. 
Professor  Brunn  ^ has  shown  us  in  what  sense  Polygnotos  represented 
the  height  of  Greek  painting — not,  as  we  have  seen,  in  technical 
superiority,  but  in  his  choice  of  subjects  and  arrangement  of  composi- 
tions, in  the  novelty  and  abundance  of  his  themes,  and,  above  all,  in 
his  intellectual  and  poetic  conceptions  and  the  ideal  ethical  character 
of  all  his  work. 


Two  painters  of  less  importance,  who  belong  to  the  latter  half  of 
the  fifth  century,  are  Agatharchos  and  Pauson.  The  former  was 
chiefly  noted  as  a scene-painter,  and  is  said  to  have  worked  in  that 
capacity  for  Aeschylus ; he  also  decorated  the  house  of  Alcibiades. 
He  was  a very  rapid  painter,  and  excelled  in  interiors.  It  is  possible 
that  his  scene-paintings  showed  attempts  at  perspective,  and  it  has 
been  thought  that  his  style  is  reflected  in  some  of  the  Lycian  tomb- 
sculptures,  such  as  those  of  Gjdlbaschi  (p.  1 12),  in  which  buildings  are 
represented  in  perspective.  Pauson  is  mentioned  in  a not  altogether 
complimentary  fashion  by  Aristophanes,  and  Aristotle’s  saying  about 

’ Ge-sch.  d.  Gr.  Kiinsfler,  ii.  p.  41  ff. 

152 


OTHER  FIFTH-CENTETRY  PAINTERS 


him  has  been  already  quoted.  We  know  little  of  him  except  for  a 
story  told  by  Aelian  that  he  was  commissioned  to  paint  a horse  rolling. 
He  produced  a picture  of  a galloping  horse,  and  on  being  remonstrated 
with,  replied  tliat  it  was  only  necessary  to  turn  it  upside  down,  and  the 
purchaser  would  find  himself  satisfied  ! 

On  the  other  hand,  Apollodoros  appears  as  an  epoch-making  artist. 
Pliny,  in  fact,  regarded  him  as  the  highest  representative  of  Greek 
painting,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  responsible  for  perhaps  the 
most  important  technical  advance  made  up  to  tliis  time,  namely,  the 
introduction  of  liglit-and-shade  effects  and  gradations  of  colour.  This 
virtually  implied  the  abandonment  of  colour-drawing  and  the  creation 
of  the  genuine  art  of  painting ; and  he  may  be  regarded  as  the  first 
Greek  picture-artist,  inasmuch  as  his  work  possessed  organic  unity,  i.e, 
all  parts  alike  contributed  to  hold  the  eye.  Under  the  influence  of 
Agatharclios,  and  the  development  of  scene-painting,  he  seems  to  have 
applied  the  same  principles  to  persons.  He  aimed  at  pictorial  illusion, 
and  painted  men  ‘ as  they  seemed  to  be,’  whence  he  was  styled  a 
‘shadow-painter.’  He  was  an  Athenian,  and  flourished  about  the  end 
of  the  fifth  century  ; it  is  he  who  has  already  been  quoted  (p.  149)  as 
having  opened  the  portals  of  art  to  Zeuxis.  Pliny  selects  for  com- 
mendation two  of  his  works,  representing  a praying  priest  and  Ajax 
struck  by  lightning. 

The  fourth  century  witnessed  a great  change  in  pictorial  art.  As 
was  to  a great  extent  the  case  with  sculpture,  the  adornment  of  public 
buildings  no  longer  called  for  the  artist’s  chief  efforts,  and  the  easel- 
picture  of  domestic  art  takes  the  place  of  the  monumental  fresco.  We 
now  begin  to  perceive  the  influence  of  the  Drama,  which  freed  painting 
from  the  trammels  of  the  sculpturesque,  a result  perhaps  largely 
brought  about  by  Agatharclios,  and  displayed  at  first  in  its  technique 
rather  than  in  the  choice  of  subjects. 

The  great  names  of  the  first  half  of  this  century  are  Zeuxis  (420- 
380  R.c.)  and  Parrhasios  (slightly  later  in  date).  They  are  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  the  Ionic  school,  but  this  must  only  be  regarded  as  a 
conventional  term,  indicating  their  origin.  Zeuxis  was  a native  of 
Herakleia,  in  Southern  Italy,  but  settled  at  Ephesus  after  travelling 
all  over  Greece.  Pliny  gives  a long  list  of  his  works,  one  of  the  most 
famous  being  a representation  of  the  infant  Herakles  strangling  the 
snake,  another,  a family  of  Centaurs.  We  can,  of  course,  only  judge  of 
him  by  the  criticisms  of  ancient  writers,  but  there  is  a painting  in  the 

1.53 


GREEK  PAINTING 


house  of  the  Vettii  at  Pompeii^  which  may  give  an  idea  of  the  Herakles 
picture,  as  well  as  a vase-painting.“  In  comparing  him  with  Polygnotos, 
it  is  urged  that  he  was  neither  a historical  painter  nor  a student  of  ethos 
or  character,  but  preferred  striking  situations  and  novel  effects.  It  is 
recorded  that  on  one  of  his  pictures  he  placed  the  inscription,  ‘ It  is 
easier  to  criticise  than  to  imitate.’  But  this  story  is  also  told  of 
Apollodoros.  He  was  also  fond  of  producing  illusions,  as  is  testified 
by  the  well-known  story  of  the  bird  and  the  bunch  of  grapes.  In 
technique  he  improved  upon  Apollodoros. 

His  subjects  are  mainly  mythological,  but  he  was  fond  of  intro- 
ducing women  and  children  (as  in  the  case  of  the  Herakles).  He  also 
shows  a tendency  to  humanise  legend,  as  in  his  picture  of  the  family  of 
Centaurs.  The  later  Athenian  vases  (see  p.  179)  exemplify  the  ten- 
dency of  the  time  to  scenes  of  domestic  life.  His  Penelope  is  described 
as  a chcJ-cV ceuvre  of  resigned  sadness  and  chaste  reserve,  and  his  Helen 
at  her  toilet  is  the  subject  of  a story  which  shows  his  carefulness  in 
choice  of  models.  From  the  maidens  of  the  city  he  selected  five, 
explaining  that  it  was  impossible  otherwise  to  obtain  perfection  in  all 
respects.  Among  his  purely  genre  paintings,  one  of  an  old  woman  is 
recorded  at  which  he  nearly  died  of  laughing,  and  also  one  of  a boy 
carrying  grapes,  at  which  birds  came  to  peck.  His  critics  urged  that 
if  the  boy  had  been  painted  as  well  as  the  grapes  he  would  have  kept 
away  the  birds.  Such  subjects  as  these  find  parallels  in  the  con- 
temporary Greek  terra-cottas,  among  which  caricatures  of  old  women 
are  not  uncommon.  He  also  painted  a picture  of  the  Olympian  Zeus, 
of  which  an  echo  may  be  seen  in  a fresco  recently  found  at  Eleusis. 

Parrhasios  was  an  Ephesian  who  became  an  Athenian  citizen,  and 
of  his  pictures,  which  are  mainly  mythological,  a long  list  has  been 
preserved.  At  tlieir  head  stands  his  personification  of  the  Athenian 
Demos,  in  which  its  chief  characteristics  were  all  brought  out.  His 
technique  was  much  elaborated  and  refined,  and  in  the  choice  of 
subjects  he  was  largely  influenced  by  Euripides.  Hence  a tendency 
to  emotion,  especially  of  a tragic  kind.  It  is  of  him  that  the  story 
is  told  that  he  painted  a curtain  which  his  rival  requested  him  to 
remove  in  order  to  view  the  picture  behind  it.  He  excelled  in  symmetry 
and  in  composition,  and  marks  a definite  rupture  with  archaism, 
being  also  especially  noted  for  the  sentiment  expressed  in  his  faces. 

He  is  described  as  having  perfected  the . rendering  of  contours  by 
means  of  effects  of  light  and  shade,  not  merely  by  colour,  a proceeding 

^ See  Plate  lxv.  Brit.  Mus.  F479. 


1,54 


I'LATI'.  LXl 


I'O.MPKIAX  WALI.-PAlN'IINc;  : HKRAKl.KS  S'l'KANc;].!  N( ; I'HK  SERl'KN’I'S  (Al'I'I^R  ZEEXIS) 

(house  of  VETTII,  I'O.MI'EIl) 


.MC)SAI(^  K Kl’R  KSKN'l'l  N( ; H.Viri.l-;  (){  I H 1-,  ISSL'S  ( l’(  ).M  IM-,  1 1 ) 


PARRH ASIOS 


described  as  ‘ the  height  of  subtlety.’  Pliny  lays  down  the  rule  that 
contours  ‘ should  appear  to  fold  back  and  embrace  the  object  so  as  to  give 
assurance  of  the  parts  behind,  and  suggest  even  what  they  conceal.’ 

Contemporary  with  these  two  was  Timanthes,  a man  of  great 
inventive  genius,  who  painted  a famous  picture  of  Iphigeneia  standing 
at  the  sacrificial  altar,  in  which  the  various  gradations  of  grief  among 
the  persons  depicted  were  expressed  with  much  subtlety.  This  is 
almost  the  first  instance  of  a masterpiece  of  descriptive  painting  of 
which  we  have  a record.  We  have  a probable  copy  of  it  in  a well- 
known  painting  at  Pompeii.  With  him  Greek  painting  reached,  in 
the  expression  of  sentiment,  a force  and  suppleness  scarcely  surpassed. 
Unlike  Polygnotos,  who  labelled  all  his  figures  carefully,  the  important 
thing  with  Timanthes  was  not  the  identity  of  his  personages  but  their 
actions  and  feelings.  The  story  was  merely  a peg  on  which  to  hang 
the  emotions. 

This  period  represents  the  struggle  towards  the  establishment  of 
pictorial  art  as  such,  a steady  advance  from  Kimon  to  Zeuxis,  on 
whom  Parrhasios  hardly  improves,  being  distinguished  more  for  careful 
work  than  for  skill.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  work  of  the  period, 
in  spite  of  the  great  technical  advances,  shows  considerable  decline  in 
nobility  of  conception  from  the  time  of  Polygnotos.  In  the  following 
period,  during  the  fourth  century,  we  may  trace  the  growth  of  realism 
in  the  schools  of  Attica,  Ionia,  and  Sikyon. 

The  last-named  school  was  one  of  instruction  in  scientific  theory 
and  principles,  and  aimed  chiefly  at  academic  accuracy  and  perfection. 
It  was  represented  by  the  names  of  Eupompos,  INIelanthios,  Pamphilos, 
and  Pausias.  Eupompos,  the  founder  of  the  school,  greatly  influenced 
Lysippos  by  his  naturalism  ; Pamphilos  was  a great  teacher  of  theory, 
and  introduced  drawing  into  schools ; and  Melanthios  excelled  in  the 
study  of  perspective,  and  surpassed  Apelles  in  composition.  Pausias 
painted  pictures  on  a small  scale,  and  was  the  first  to  excel  in 
encaustic.  He  also  introduced  the  practice  of  painting  the  coffers  of 
ceilings  with  figures  of  flying  Erotes  and  other  devices.^  He  seems  to 
have  been  an  exception  to  the  rest  of  the  school — a born  decorator, 
who  liked  small  pictures,  and  had  more  fancy  than  the  others.  He 
originated  the  precious  and  mannered  art  of  the  Hellenistic  Age,  and 

^ On  a coffer  from  the  ceiling  of  the  Nereid  monument,  in  the  British  Museum  (p.  121),  may  he 
seen  traces  of  a painted  head,  which  is  an  illustration  of  this  new  practice,  and  dates  from  the 
beginning  of  this  century. 


15,5 


GREEK  PAINTING 


was  fond  of  painting  children.  He  invented  a new  process  of  chiar- 
oscuro,  and  among  his  achievements  we  read  of  wonderful  foreshorten- 
ing effects  in  a picture  of  oxen  at  a sacrifice,  and  of  his  imitating  the 
transparency  of  glass  in  a picture  of  Methe — a personification  of  inebriety 
— drinking  from  a glass  vessel,  through  which  her  face  was  visible. 

The  Attic,  or  rather  Theban-Attic,  school  is  represented  by 
Aristeides,  Euphranor,  Nikomachos,  and  Nikias,  and  its  reign  has 
been  described  as  the  Golden  Age  of  Painting.  They  were  less  care- 
ful in  regard  to  theory  and  technique  than  the  Sikyonian  masters,  and 
devoted  themselves  especially  to  large  compositions,  giving  scope  for 
the  display  of  expression  and  emotion.  In  the  serious  and  noble 
subjects  which  they  affected,  we  see  a return  to  the  grand  decorative 
art  of  the  preceding  century. 

Aristeides  painted  the  passions,  and  one  of  his  most  famous 
pictures  was  of  a dying  mother  in  a siege.  It  was  carried  off  by 
Alexander  the  Great  to  his  capital  Pella.  Euphranor  is  also  known 
as  a sculptor,  and  Nikias  was  an  encaustic  painter.  The  latter  was 
employed  by  Praxiteles  to  touch  up  his  statues  (see  p.  64  for  the 
process  implied),  and  was  remarkable  for  his  power  of  making  his 
figures  stand  out  from  their  background.  It  is  probable  that  he 
exercised  considerable  influence  on  the  painters  of  the  succeeding 
century.  Allusion  has  been  made  (p.  141)  to  a painted  tombstone  by 
him  at  Tritaea  in  Achaia,  and  a famous  painting  of  lo  found  on  the 
Palatine  at  Rome  is  doubtless  a reminiscence  of  one  of  his  subjects. 
The  former  may  be  compared  wdth  a fourth-century  painting  found  in 
Attica,  on  the  tombstone  of  one  Tokkes  of  Aphyte ; the  colours  are 
now  lost,  but  the  marble  appears  to  have  been  painted  in  body-colour 
without  any  engraving  or  marking  of  details  by  traits  rherves,  i.e. 
leaving  parts  of  the  surface  clear  of  pigment.^ 

With  the  age  of  Alexander  the  Great  we  reach  the  time  of  the 
great  Apelles,  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  the  highest  point  attained 
by  Greek  painting.  He  w^as  probably  a native  of  Asia  Minor,  but 
lived  in  various  parts  of  Greece,  and  at  one  time  was  in  high  favour 
at  the  court  of  Alexander  the  Great,  where  he  enjoyed  the  same 
exclusive  privileges  as  Lysippos.  The  period  during  which  he  worked 
was  practically  coincident  with  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century ; 
he  belonged  to  no  school,  and  had  no  successor.  Among  the  list  of 
pictures  recorded  under  his  name  there  is  a large  proportion  of  portraits 
and  allegorical  subjects,  but  not  a few  are  mythological  in  their  scope. 

^ See  Athen.  MittheH.  des  arch,  Inst.,  1880,  pi.  G,  p.  104  ff. 


156 


APELLES 


Among  the  latter  was  the  famous  painting  of  A])hrodite  rising  from 
the  sea  ( Anadyomene),  which  was  made  for  the  temple  of  Asklepios 
at  Kos  and  carried  off  to  Rome  by  Augustus.  He  used  a living  model 
for  the  figure  of  the  goddess,  who  was  depicted  rising  half  out  of  the 
Avaves  and  wringing  the  water  out  of  her  hair.  The  praises  of  the 
picture  are  frequently  sung  in  the  Greek  Anthology,  and  it  was 
imitated  in  statuettes  of  bronze  and  terra-cotta,  and  in  later  paintings, 
and  may  also  be  said  to  have  inspired  the  fiimous  painting  by  Botticelli. 

He  also  showed  a predilection  for  deified  abstractions  and  personi- 
fications. Among  his  allegorical  subjects,  the  best  known  is  a painting 
of  Calumny,  a seated  man  with  long  ears,  surrounded  by  Slander, 
Envy,  Ignorance,  and  other  j)ersonifications,  which  is  described  by 
Lucian.  Of  Alexander  the  Great  he  painted  a famous  portrait  for 
the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus,  in  a sort  of  clikiroscuro  or 
Rembrandt  style ; the  conqueror  was  represented  with  the  attribute 
of  Zeus,  the  thunderbolt.  3Iany  other  portraits  of  the  great  king  are 
also  recorded,  and  others  of  Philip  and  other  contemporary  princes. 

Apelles  painted  almost  exclusively  in  tempera,  and  his  technical 
skill  was  extraordinary,  especially  in  light-and-shade  effects,  in  flesh- 
tones,  and  in  the  draAving  of  lines,  Avhich  as  we  knoAv  from  his  famous 
saying,  Nulla  dies  sine  linea,  he  Avas  always  practising.  He  AA^as  proud 
of  the  grace  of  his  work,  Avhich  seems  to  have  been  its  especial  dis- 
tinction, but  thought  his  contemporary  Protogenes  a better  painter. 
Numerous  anecdotes  are  told  about  him,  some  of  Avhich  are  very 
familiar,  such  as  the  story  of  the  cobbler  and  his  last,  or  that  of  his 
visit  to  Protogenes,  on  Avhose  wall  he  drcAv  a fine  circle,  Avhich  the 
latter  artist  eclipsed  by  draAving  a finer  one  OA^er  it ; but  Apelles,  not 
to  be  outdone,  drcAv  yet  a third  line  of  even  greater  fineness.  He  is 
described  as  painting  only  in  four  colours,  Avhite,  yelloAV,  red,  and  black, 
like  Polygnotos,  but  this  is  obviously  untrue.  Pliny  also  states  that 
he  covered  all  his  pictures  Avith  a thin  black  glaze  or  varnish,  Avhich 
had  the  double  effect  of  softening  and  preseiwing  them.  In  him 
Greek  technical  skill  reached  the  height  of  perfection ; but  his  com- 
positions Avere  sometimes  Aveak  and  careless.  He  Avas  eclectic  rather 
than  inventive ; yet  the  general  verdict  Avas  that  he  was  the  most 
perfect  painter  Greece  produced. 

His  contemporary  and  rival.  Protogenes,  Avas  a native  of  Kaunos 
on  the  coast  of  Caria.  ^ He  is  said  to  have  been  very  poor,  and  to  have 
earned  a living  by  decorating  the  prows  of  ships.  He  liA^ed  and 
Avorked  mainly  at  Rhodes,  where  he  painted  a picture  of  lalysos,  a 

157 


GREEK  PAINTING 


personification  of  one  of  the  cities  of  the  island,  hunting  with  his  dog. 
In  connection  therewith  the  story  is  told  of  his  accidentally  obtaining 
the  effect  of  the  foam  on  the  dog’s  mouth  by  throwing  a sponge,  in 
despair,  at  his  picture.  This  story  is  also  told  of  Apelles  painting  a 
horse.  The  lalysos  is  said  to  have  taken  him  eleven  years  to  complete. 
He  painted  a picture  of  the  Paralos  or  State-ship,  which  hung  in  the 
Propylaea,  in  the  National  Gallery  of  Athens,  and  also  wrote  treatises 
on  painting.  He  is  spoken  of  as  having  given  a very  high  finish  to 
his  pictures,  which  concerned  themselves  for  the  most  part  with 
sensational  and  dramatic  or  homely  genre  subjects. 

Another  painter  of  the  period  who  ranked  very  high  was  Anti- 
philos,  an  artist  distinguished  for  his  facility  and  many-sidedness. 
He  painted  both  in  tempera  and  encaustic,  and  his  subjects  were  very 
varied.  They  are  mostly  typical  of  the  tendency  to  genre  in  the  Hellen- 
istic period ; and  some  of  his  pictures,  such  as  those  of  a boy  blowing 
up  a fire  and  women  preparing  wool,  would  probably  remind  us  of 
Teniers  and  the  Dutch  school  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  was 
also  fond  of  caricatures  and  grotesque  combinations  of  figures,  known 
as  gey  Hi,  such  as  are  sometimes  seen  on  ancient  gems.  He  painted 
a picture  of  Hippolytos  terrified  by  the  bull  which  caused  his  death, 
a subject  which  finds  an  interesting  parallel  in  a contemporary  vase- 
painting  in  the  British  JMuseum. 

Action  (350-320  b.c.),  another  noted  painter  of  the  time,  was  also 
characteristic  of  his  age  in  his  combination  of  realism  and  allegorical 
fancies.  Lucian  describes  his  picture  of  the  marriage  of  Alexander 
and  Roxana,  which  probably  served  as  a model  for  the  Aldobrandini 
painting  of  a wedding,  preserved  at  Rome.  He  was  the  first  to 
introduce  the  sportive  Cupids  which  play  so  large  a part  in  the 
Pompeian  paintings  and  the  art  of  the  Renaissance. 

Theon  of  Samos  painted  a set  of  scenes  of  the  Trojan  War,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  the  earliest  instance  of  "illustrations  of  the  classics.’ 
He  aimed  at  illusive  effects  in  his  work.  In  the  succeeding  period, 
the  third  century,  there  is  only  one  name  of  note,  that  of  Timomachos 
of  Byzantium,  who  painted  famous  pictures  of  Ajax  recovering  from 
his  madness  and  Medea  on  the  point  of  slaying  her  children ; the 
latter  is  reproduced  in  a Pompeian  painting,  here,  as  in  so  many  cases, 
our  only  source  of  information  as  to  the  appearance  of  the  greater 
artists’  works. 

The  only  real  advance  made  in  painting  subsequently  to  the  fourth 
century  is  in  landscape,  which  by  the  end  of  the  Hellenistic  period 
158 


HELLENISTIC  PAINTINGS 


had  progressed  far  from  the  days  of  Polygnotos,  when  it  was  merely 
indicated,  as  on  the  painted  vases.  The  tendency  in  this  direction  is 
also  to  be  observed  in  the  sculptured  reliefs  of  the  period,  and  in  such 
works  as  the  Farnese  Bull  (pp.  133,  137).  In  the  Pompeian  wall- 
paintings  and  others  of  the  period,  as  in  the  scenes  from  the  Odyssey 
found  on  the  Esquiline  at  Bome,^  and  in  some  of  the  representations 
of  the  death  of  Ikaros,  it  is  represented  with  great  success  ; and  in  the 
later  Pompeian  paintings  it  reached  a very  elaborate  stage  of  develop- 
ment, but  one  that  belongs  more  properly  to  the  domain  of  Roman  Art. 

The  achievements  of  the  Hellenistic  age,  in  painting  as  in  other 
branches  of  art,  show  us  that,  as  a French  writer  has  said,  ‘it  was 
a prolongation  of  the  Hellenic  age,  but  one  in  which  the  power  of 
invention  was  lost,  and  the  painters  of  the  time  only  followed  in  the 
steps  of  their  predecessors.  Though  it  was  a decadence,  it  was  a 
decadence  full  of  grace,  and  Greek  civilisation,  while  dying  out,  was 
yet  educating  the  world.’  “ 

The  record  of  Greek  painting  is  for  the  most  part  a dry  and 
unsatisfying  list  of  names,  and  a rechauffe  of  more  or  less  trustworthy 
criticisms ; nor  can  we  ever  hope  to  find  ourselves  in  a better  position  in 
this  respect.  From  time  to  time,  however,  monuments  are  brought  to 
light  which  afford  a glimmer  of  illumination  on  the  subject,  such  as 
the  great  mosaic  representing  Alexander  and  Dareios  at  the  battle  of 
the  Issos,^  which  doubtless  reflects  some  great  painted  composition 
of  earlier  date  ; the  figure  of  Alexander  may  even  go  back  to  an 
original  by  Apelles.  Or  again,  there  are  the  charming  easel-paintings 
of  Herculaneum,  which  evidently  go  back  to  earlier  prototypes.  The 
best-known  of  these  are  a picture  of  Demeter  giving  drink  to  a tired 
Seilenos,  and  the  pretty  subject  of  the  daughters  of  Pandaros  playing 
at  the  game  of  knucklebones,  the  latter  signed  by  Alexandros  of 
Athens ; ^ the  red  outlines  of  the  figures  alone  remain,  but  sufficient  to 
indicate  the  grace  of  the  drawing.  Professor  Robert  assigns  the  latter 
picture  to  an  original  by  Apollodoros  of  about  420  b.c.  The  shading  is 
what  would  be  expected  of  an  artist  who  had  advanced  on  Polygnotos. 

There  is  also  a series  of  paintings  from  the  Cyrenaica  in  North 
Africa,  found  in  tombs,  which  represent  musical  and  tragic  choruses, 
and  others  from  Kertch  in  the  Crimea,  among  which  is  a lyre  painted 
with  the  subject  of  the  rape  of  the  I^eukippidae  by  Castor  and  Pollux. 
Lastly,  there  is  the  series  of  Greek  mummy-paintings  found  in  the 

^ Cf.  Vitr.  vii.  5.  - Girard,  Peinture  Antique,  p.  245. 

^ See  Plate  lxvi.  ^ Plate  lxvii. 


159 


GREEK  PAINTING 

Fayimi  district  of  Egypt,  which,  though  much  later  in  date,  yet  still 
belong  to  Greek  art.  They  are  painted  on  wood,  and  date  from  the 
first  to  the  third  century  after  Christ.  They  are  purely  funerary 
in  character,  and  actually  represent  a survival  of  old  beliefs,  taking 
the  place  of  the  ancient  modelled  masks,  examples  of  which  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  chapter  on  Terra-cottas.  They  were  painted  on  the 
front  of  the  mummies,  as  if  to  represent  the  face  of  the  corpse  seen 
through  the  opening.  The  expressions  are  remarkably  life-like,  and 
some  of  the  types  of  faces  are  most  modern  in  appearance,  the  mascu- 
line faces  comparable  with  those  of  some  old  Italian  masters,  the 
feminine  with  studies  by  Greuze. 

Nor  must  we  ignore  the  light  that  Etruscan  tomb-paintings  throw 
on  Greek  art,  just  as  do  their  bronzes  and  other  monuments.  The 
earlier  paintings,  which  have  already  been  mentioned  (p.  148)  are 
more  influenced  by  the  vases  of  Corinth  and  Ionia,  but  the  tomb- 
paintings  of  Corneto  and  others,  which  date  from  the  fifth  to  the  third 
century  b.c.,  technically  at  any  rate  reflect  the  spirit  of  the  greater 
Greek  paintings.  The  subjects  are  mainly  dances,  banquets,  and  such* 
like,  or  travesties  of  Greek  mythology,  introducing  such  figures  as 
Charon  transformed  into  a repulsive  monster.  They  are  partly 
imitative,  partly  inventive,  the  latter  characteristics  being  manifested 
in  their  sombre  realism,  the  former  in  details  of  costume,  and  in 
the  colouring  and  design. 

Even  more  valuable  for  this  purpose  is  the  great  sarcophagus 
found  at  Corneto  in  1869,^  which  has  already  been  adduced  as  an 
example  of  tempera  painting  on  marble  (p.  141).  Its  date  is  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century,  and  the  subject  is  a battle  of  Greeks  and 
Amazons.  Although  the  sculptured  work  is  purely  Etruscan,  the 
paintings  are,  if  not  by  a Greek  artist,  yet  by  an  Etruscan  altogether 
imbued  with  Greek  notions  and  Greek  feeling.  They  may  perhaps 
give  us  an  idea  of  the  work  of  Euphranor  or  Nikias.  The  colours  are 
extremely  rich  and  vivid,  and  on  the  whole  well  preserved  ; the  style 
of  the  composition  reminds  us  of  the  contemporary  painted  vases  of 
Southern  Italy,  except  that  in  place  of  their  comparative  tameness 
the  whole  is  instinct  with  vigour  and  passion  ; and  it  is  difficult  to 
refrain  from  the  thought  that  there  must  be  an  endeavour,  conscious 
or  unconscious,  to  reproduce  the  great  works  in  sculpture  of  the 
highest  period,  such  as  the  friezes  of  Phigaleia  and  the  JNIausoleum. 

1 See  Journ.  llellen.  Stud.,  iv.  p.  354  ff.,  and  pis.  3G-38  for  a reproduction  in  colours.  Plate 
Lxviii.  is  reproduced  from  the  first  of  these  plates. 

160 


rr.ATF.  i.xi’ii 


PAIN’IINC.  KROM  H I:R(  1’ LAMA' M 1!V  A LLX  A M »R()S  : 
TUL  DALAiH'IKKS  OL  I'AMtAKOS  IM.AVIXC  KM’CK  LhAK  )N  KS 


///IV 


CHAPTER  IX 


GREEK  VASES 

Greek  origin,  not  Etruscan — Uses  of  Greek  vases — Shapes — Technical  methods 
— Classification — Primitive  Ionic  and  Corinthian  fabrics — Attic  Black-figured 
vases — The  Red-figure  period — White-ground  vases — Vase-painting  in  Southern 
Italy — Decadence  of  the  art. 


IT  may  perhaps  be  advisable  to  preface  this  chapter  with  a word 
of  warning  as  to  the  popular  use  of  the  term  ‘ Etruscan  ’ in 
reference  to  the  painted  vases  of  the  Greeks — a term  which 
arose  in  the  eighteenth  century,  when  Etruria  was  almost  the  only 
region  in  which  they  had  been  found,  and  although  even  then  strongly 
combated,  was  so  stoutly  upheld  by  Italian  scholars  with  patriotic 
instincts  that  it  has  since  held  its  ground  with  all  the  tenacity  of  such 
popular  errors.  It  is  only  necessary  now-a-days  to  visit  the  museum 
at  Athens,  where  hundreds  of  painted  vases,  all  similar  in  form, 
technique,  and  subjects  to  those  found  in  Italy,  have  been  collected 
together  from  exclusively  Hellenic  sites,  to  prove  the  utter  baseless- 
ness of  the  old  Etruscan  theory.  In  point  of  fact,  there  was  no  branch 
of  art  in  which  the  Etruscans  showed  themselves  so  unsuccessful  as 
that  of  painted  pottery,  as  the  few  remains  of  genuine  Etruscan 
products  clearly  show.  The  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  painted 
vases  of  the  best  period  have  been  found  in  the  tombs  of  Etruria,  and 
especially  at  Vulci,  can  only  be  explained  by  supposing  that  they 
happened  to  catch  the  taste  of  Italian  noblemen  and  others  for  whose 
benefit  they  were  imported  in  large  numbers  so  long  as  the  fashion 
prevailed. 

Generally  speaking,  all  the  painted  vases  have  been  found  in  tombs, 
whether  in  Greece,  Italy,  or  elsewhere.  Exceptions  are  to  be  found 
in  the  case  of  certain  temple-sites,  where  votive  offerings  of  all  kinds 
were  made  to  the  presiding  deities,  and  among  them  vases,  often  with 
dedicatory  inscriptions,  which  chance  has  preserved  to  us,  though 
usually  in  a fragmentary  condition..  On  the  Acropolis  of  Athens, 

161 


G.  A.— 11 


GREEK  VASES 


among  the  debris  caused  by  the  sack  of  the  citadel  by  the  Persians 
in  480  B.c.  and  the  subsequent  rebuilding  operations,  numbers  of 
fragments  of  these  votive  paintings,  many  of  unique  beauty  and 
interest,  have  been  brought  to  light ; and  similar  results  have  been 
obtained  at  Naukratis  in  the  Egyptian  Delta,  at  Corinth,  and 
elsewhere. 

The  sites  on  which  tomb-finds  have  been  made  cover  a large  area, 
extending  from  Sardinia  to  Cyprus,  and  from  the  Crimea  to  North 
Africa.  In  Italy  the  chief  discoveries  have  been  made  at  Vulci, 
Corneto,  and  Cervetri  in  Etruria,  at  Nola  and  Capua  in  Campania, 
and  at  Ruvo  in  Apulia,  as  well  as  in  many  less-known  places.  In 
Sicily,  especially  at  Terranuova  (Gela),  Greek  vases  are  not  uncommon  ; 
and  many  of  these,  as  well  as  the  later  examples  from  Southern  Italy, 
are  probably  not  imported  but  the  work  of  local  hands,  of  Greek 
artists  resident  in  the  colonies  of  Magna  Graecia. 

In  Greece  proper,  Athens  and  the  neighbourhood  have  yielded  the 
greater  proportion  of  all  periods ; at  Corinth  and  in  Boeotia,  the  finds 
are  mainly  of  primitive  and  early  local  types.  Among  the  islands, 
Crete,  ]\Ielos,  and  Thera  are  each  remarkable  for  primitive  local 
fabrics  ; and  in  Rhodes  large  numbers  of  all  dates  have  been  found. 
From  Asia  INIinor  the  finds  on  the  mainland  are  comparatively  rare; 
while  the  pottery  of  Cyprus  is  of  a unique  and  quasi-Oriental  character, 
with  occasional  importations  of  Greek  wares.  The  vases  of  Kertch  in 
the  Crimea  and  Cyrene  on  the  coast  of  Africa  are  mainly  of  late  date, 
illustrating  the  work  of  potters  who  migrated  from  Athens  in  the 
waning  period  of  that  city’s  art. 

The  purposes  for  which  painted  vases  were  used  by  the  ancients 
have  been  the  subject  of  some  dispute ; but  the  fact  of  their  being  so 
largely  found  in  tombs  tends  to  show  that  this  was  a main  object  of 
their  manufacture.  In  regard  to  certain  classes  this  was  undoubtedly 
their  exclusive  purpose,  as  the  subjects  depicted  on  them  imply,  apart 
from  other  evidence.  Such  are  the  Athenian  polychrome  lekythi  and 
many  of  the  late  vases  of  Southern  Italy.  It  is  curious  that  there  is 
hardly  more  than  one  passage  in  classical  writers  which  alludes  to  these 
vases,  in  spite  of  the  large  part  they  seem  to  have  played  in  Greek 
artistic  and  daily  life.  Aristophanes,  however,  speaks  of  one  who 
painted  lekythi  with  figures  for  the  dead,  and  Pindar  sings  of  the 
decorated  prize-vases  won  by  the  victors  in  the  Panathenaic  games ; 
for  the  rest,  the  vases  must  speak  for  themselves. 

In  connection  with  funeral  ceremonies,  they  were  doubtless  placed 
IG2 


USES  OF  PAINTED  VASES 


round  the  corpse  when  it  was  laid  out  for  burial,  and  filled  with  oil 
and  fragrant  perfumes ; then,  as  the  painted  funeral  vases  sometimes 
indicate,  they  were  ranged  on  or  round  the  tomb ; and,  finally,  a 
varying  number  were  placed  inside  the  tomb  round  the  corpse.  The 
primary  reason  of  this  was  the  universal  belief  of  the  Greeks,  as  of 
other  nations,  that  the  dead  required  in  a future  existence  all  the 
objects  of  which  they  made  use  in  their  daily  life.  In  some  cases  the 
vases  appear  to  have  been  deliberately  broken,  with  the  idea  that  the 
dead  person  could  only  use  what  was  ‘ dead  ’ also. 

In  daily  life  it  is  probable  that  the  use  of  painted  vases  was  largely 
analogous  to  the  modern  use  of  china.  The  ordinary  household 
utensils,  such  as  drinking-cups,  wine-jugs,  and  pitchers  for  fetching 
water,  would  be — when  not  of  metal — made  of  earthenware,  i,e.  of 
plain  pottery  impainted  and  often  iinglazed ; while  the  more  valuable 
and  elaborate  specimens  would  be  applied  to  the  decoration  of  the 
house,  or  only  used  on  special  occasions.  Some  shapes  are  obviously 
adapted  for  hanging  up  against  a wall ; while  the  fact  that  on  many  of 
the  later  vases  the  decoration  of  one  side  is  markedly  inferior  to  the 
other  seems  to  show  that  they  were  placed  where  only  one  side  was  to 
be  seen.  Certain  vases  again  were  given  as  prizes  in  the  games  ; others 
with  complimentary  inscriptions  may  have  been  given  as  presents. 

Although  hardly  applying  to  the  painted  vases,  it  may  be  worth 
while  to  allude  to  another  use  made  by  the  Greeks  of  their  pottery,  in 
the  Athenian  system  of  ostracism  (so-called  from  ostrakon,  a potsherd, 
lit.,  oyster-shell),  in  which  the  names  of  those  persons  whom  it  was 
desired  to  banish  were  inscribed  on  fragments  of  pottery.  Some  of 
these  have  been  preserved  to  us,  bearing  the  names  of  such  well-known 
personages  as  Themistocles,  and  Xanthippos,  the  father  of  Pericles. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  are  intended  to  give  a notion  of  the 
most  typical  forms  favoured  by  the  Greek  potters ; but  each  form 
usually  varies  at  different  periods,  sometimes  more,  sometimes  less, 
and  some  again  are  only  found  in  early  or  in  late  times.  Some  again 
had  special  periods  of  popularity,  as  at  Athens,  where  first  the  amphora, 
then  the  kylix,  and  finally  the  lekythos  almost  reign  supreme. 

The  amphora  (1)  and  stamnos  (2)  were  two-handled  jars  used  for 
storing  wine  or  food ; the  kratcr  or  mixing-bowl  (3)  held  the  mixture 
of  wine  and  water  for  banquets,  from  which  it  was  drawn  out  by 
means  of  a ladle  or  kijathos  (4),  and  poured  out  for  the  guests  from 
the  oinochoe  (5),  which  resembled  the  modern  beer-jug.  The  Ichcs  (C) 
was  placed  on  a stand  or  tripod,  and  used  for  boiling  water ; the 

163 


Amphora  (1) 


Fig.  14. 


164 


TECHNICAL  PROCESSES 


//?/dria  (7),  a three-handled  pitcher,  for  carrying  water  from  the  well, 
as  often  depicted  on  the  vases.  The  shapes  of  Greek  drinking-cups 
are,  as  a rule,  exceedingly  beautiful,  especially  in  the  red-figure 
period;  the  chief  varieties  are  the  /xi/IliV  or  goblet  (8),  the  kofyle  or 
beaker  (9),  the  kantharos  or  wine-cup  (10),  and  the  rhyton  or  drinking- 
horn  (11),  usually  fashioned  in  the  form  of  an  animal’s  head.  The 
phiale  (12),  a shallow  bowl,  was  used  for  libations.  The  Ich'ythos  (13) 
and  its  varieties  the  alahastron  (14),  aryhallos  (15),  and  askos  (10), 
were  used,  especially  by  athletes,  for  holding  oil,  and  always  had  a 
narrow  neck  to  enable  it  to  pour  out  slowly.  The  last  shape  that  need 
be  mentioned  here  is  the  pyxis  or  toilet-box  (17),  usually  of  cylindrical 
form,  and  used  by  ladies  to  hold  unguents  or  objects  for  the  toilet. 

The  clay  for  the  painted  vases  was  largely  obtained  from  Cape 
Kolias  in  Attica,  and  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Corinth,  and  the 
prevalent  reddish  hue  of  the  Attic  vases  was  produced  by  an  admixture 
of  red  ochre.  At  Athens  there  was  a regular  potters’  quarter,  known 
as  the  Ceramicus,  which  adjoined  the  chief  burial-ground,  and  was 
tlierefore  convenient  for  the  making  of  vases  for  funeral  purposes. 

The  earliest  Greek  vases  are  hand-made,  but  the  potter’s  wheel  was 
known  in  Egypt  at  a very  remote  period,  and  even  in  Greece  was 
credited  with  a legendary  origin.  Homer  introduces  it  in  one  of  his 
similes.  Hence  we  can  trace  the  introduction  of  wheel-made  vases 
even  in  the  Mycenaean  period,  and  thereafter  the  only  ones  made  by 
hand  were  jars  of  abnormal  size. 

When  the  clay  had  received  the  required  form  the  surface  was  carefully 
smoothed,  and  the  vase  placed  in  the  air  to  dry ; the  handles  were  then 
separately  attached.  The  next  process  was  the  baking,  a very  critical 
one,  owing  to  the  necessity  of  accurately  adjusting  the  amount  of  heat 
required.  Some  vases  may  be  seen  to  have  been  subjected  to  too  much 
or  too  little  heat,  and  to  have  become  discoloured.  Others  again  have 
been  cracked  in  the  baking,  or  dented  in  by  the  pressure  of  other  vases 
while  still  soft.  The  ovens  seem  to  have  differed  little  from  those  in 
use  at  the  present  day. 

The  vase  having  successfully  passed  through  the  baking,  the  next 
process  was  the  decoration,  which,  as  we  shall  see,  varied  at  different 
periods.  It  may,  however,  be  briefly  noted  here  that  in  the  Attic 
vases,  which  form  a vast  proportion  of  those  in  existence,  the  usual 
method  was  to  produce  on  the  surface  of  the  vase  a highly  lustrous  red 
or  orange  glaze.  In  the  earlier  or  black-figured  vases  the  figures  and 
ornaments  were  painted  on  this  with  a lustrous  black  pigment  or 

IG5 


GREEK  VA8ES 


varnish,  producing  silhouettes,  in  which  the  details  were  brought  out 
by  means  of  engraved  lines  or  the  application  of  white  and  purple 
pigments.  Another  method  was  to  cover  the  whole  of  the  vase  with 
the  black  varnish  except  a s({uare  panel  (or  two  where  both  sides  were 
decorated),  which  was  left  in  red  to  receive  the  figures.  This  was 
virtually  the  method  adopted  in  the  succeeding  periods  (from  about 
520  li.c.  onwards),  when  the  reverse  system  of  red  figures  on  a black 
ground  became  fasliionable ; with  this  difference,  that  the  vase  now 
became  entirely  black,  except  for  the  figures  which  were  left  in  the 
colour  of  the  clay.  After  a second  firing  to  fix  the  colours,  the  vase 
was  regarded  as  complete. 

In  the  primitive  stages  of  vase-painting  the  process  of  decoration 
was,  of  course,  simpler.  The  clay  is  usually  of  a pale  drab  colour,  and 
the  glaze  is  often  of  an  inferior  nature  ; the  figures  are  usually  painted 
in  black,  which  lacks  the  brilliant  lustre  of  the  Attic  wares.  In  certain 
fabrics  purple  and  white  are  largely  employed,  as  are  also  the  engraved 
lines  from  the  seventh  century  onwards.  The  only  important  variation 
from  the  two  recognised  Attic  methods  is  in  the  fifth  century  vases, 
also  made  at  Athens,  with  outline  or  polychrome  decoration  on  a white 
ground.  In  these  the  figures  are  drawn  in  outline  with  a fine  brush  of 
red  or  black  colour,  and  washes  of  other  colours,  red,  yellow,  or  purple 
are  employed  to  fill  in  the  larger  details. 

The  various  stages  in  the  manufacture  of  painted  pottery  are  some- 
times depicted  on  the  vases  themselves,  from  which  valuable  informa- 
tion may  be  gleaned  about  the  different  processes.  We  see  the  potter 
seated  before  his  wheel,  shaping  the  clay  (Fig.  15),  or  polishing  the 
surface  ; or  representations  of  the  flaming  kiln,  with  the  vases  piled 
up  in  the  interior ; or  again,  an  artist  painting  the  surface  of  a vase 
with  brush  or  pen  (Fig.  1C).  ]\Iany  of  these  scenes  occur  on  the 
Corinthian  painted  tablets  described  in  the  last  chapter,  reminding  us 
that  Corinth  in  the  seventh  and  sixth  centuries  was  a great  centre  of 
ceramic  industry ; there  are  also  among  them  paintings  in  which  the 
digging  out  of  the  clay  is  represented,  and  others  in  which  the  com- 
pleted vases  are  being  conveyed  over  the  sea  in  ships  for  exportation 
to  other  countries.  One  or  two  vases  reproduce  the  interior  of  a 
potter’s  workshop  with  much  vivid  detail.^ 

It  may  be  found  convenient,  before  discussing  the  historical  and 
artistic  development  of  Greek  vase-painting,  to  summarise  briefly  the 
main  classes  into  which  vases  may  be  divided. 

^ See  Figs,  lo,  1(5,  and  generally  ^\"alters,  Ancient  Potterij,  i.  p.  207  ff. 

ICC 


Fig.  10.  Scene  in  a Vahe-Painter’s  Studio.  (From  a Va8e  eound  at  Kuvo.) 


PLATE  LXL\ 


(,K()M  K TRICAL  VASK  OF  “Dll’Vl.ON  ' STVFK 

(ATHKNS  I\rUSKUM) 


J'LATK 


IONIC'  VASK-I’AIN  riN(;s  : 

1.  I'LA'I'K  FROM  KHOOKS:  COMIiAl'  OF  M1<:NFLA0S  AN1>  HI'.('r(M< 

(bkitish  museum) 

2.  rVKKNAIC  CITF  : AKKPLSIFAOS  OF  C'VRF'.NK  AND  S 1 LPH  I UM-'I'RA  I )KRS 

(llII!LIOTufe()UE  NATIONAT.K,  I'AKIS) 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERIODS 


I.  leases  of  the  Pi'huitive  Period,  from  about  2000  ilc.  to  GOO  b.c.  ; 
decoration  in  brown  or  black  (usually  dull,  not  lustrous),  on  a ground 
varying  from  white  to  pale  red,  often  unglazed  ; ornaments  chiefly 
linear,  floral,  or  figures  of  animals  ; human  figures  and  mytliological 
scenes  very  rare. 

II.  Plaek-figured  Vases,  from  about  GOO  v>,c.  to  500  b.c.  ; figures 
painted  in  lustrous  black  on  glazed  ground  varying  from  cream- 
colour  to  bright  orange- red,  with  engraved  lines  and  white  and  purple 
for  details  ; subjects  mainly  from  mythology  and  legend, 

III.  Red-figured  Vases,  from  520  to  400  b.c.;  figures  drawn  in 
outline  on  red  clay  and  the  background  wholly  filled  in  with  black 
varnish  ; inner  details  indicated  by  painted  lines  or  dashes  of  purple 
and  white ; scenes  from  daily  life  or  mythology.  With  these  are 
included  vases  with  polychrome  figures  on  white  ground.  In  these, 
which  are  exclusively  made  at  Athens,  the  perfection  of  vase-painting 
is  reaehed,  between  480  and  450  b.c. 

IV.  leases  of  the  Idecadence,  from  400  to  200  b.c.  ; mostly  from 
Southern  Italy;  technique  as  in  class  iii.,  but  drawing  free  and 
careless,  and  general  effect  gaudy ; subjects  funereal,  theatrical,  and 
fanciful.  At  the  end  of  this  period  painted  vases  are  largely  replaced 
by  plain  glazed  vases  modelled  in  various  forms  or  with  decoration  in 
relief,  all  these  being  imitations  of  the  metal  vases  which  now  began 
to  take  the  place  of  painted  ware  in  the  estimation  of  the  Hellenistic 
world. 

In  a previous  chapter  some  allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the 
earliest  painted  pottery  found  on  Greek  soil,  and  we  have  seen  how  the 
highly-developed  IMycenaean  wares  were  replaced  by  pottery  of  a vastly 
inferior  and  more  rudimentary  type,  as  a result  of  a general  artistic 
reaction.  This  pottery,  which  is  found  all  over  the  mainland  and 
islands  of  Greece,  covers  a period  of  some  three  hundred  years,  during 
which  a certain  development  is  visible  towards  a more  advanced  stage. 
Its  main  characteristic  is  its  geometrical  decoration,  consisting  of 
clievrons,  triangles,  maeander,  circles,  and  such-like  patterns,  painted 
in  a dull  black  on  brownish  ground.  In  most  places  it  never  advanced 
beyond  this,  but  in  Boeotia  and  still  more  at  Athens  we  can  trace  the 
gradual  growth  of  decorative  power,  first  by  the  introduction  of 
animals,  and  then  by  the  appearance  of  the  human  figure.  In  the 
Athenian  cemetery  outside  the  Dipylon  gate  a series  of  colossal  vases 
has  come  to  light,  placed  originally  as  monuments  on  the  tombs,  on 

1G9 


GREEK  VASES 


which  are  painted  such  subjects  as  sea-fights  and  funeral  processions.^ 
The  geometrical  patterns  on  these  have  already  assumed  a subsidiary 
place.  The  drawing  of  the  human  figures  is  rude  in  the  extreme,  and 
they  are  painted  entirely  in  silhouette,  without  any  attempt  at  detail ; 
yet  there  is  a distinct  striving  after  artistic  effect,  especially  in  the  com- 
position and  arrangement.  In  Hoeotia  this  stage  was  never  reached, 
and  a kind  of  decadence  early  set  in,  the  patterns  and  figures  of 
animals  being  painted  with  great  carelessness,  as  contrasted  with  the 
painstaking  helplessness  of  the  Athenian  artists. 

Tlie  close  of  the  ‘ geometrical  ’ period  brings  us  to  the  point  when 
Cxreek  art  in  general  was  beginning  to  assume  a definite  and  individual 
character.  ^ In  the  seventh  century  two  main  influences  were  at  work, 
developing  the  art  of  the  race  along  two  distinct  though  not  widely 
different  lines,  which  manifested  themselves  respectively  on  the 
Eastern  and  Western  sides  of  the  Aegean  Sea.  On  the  one  hand, 
we  have  the  Ionian  races,  the  heirs  of  Mycenaean  culture  and  the 
principal  translators  of  Oriental  art  into  a Greek  setting  ; on  the  other, 
the  Athenians,  still  backward,  yet  even  at  this  time  showing  promise 
of  coming  greatness,  and  Corinth,  the  great  commercial  centre  of  the 
period,  and  the  main  producer  and  exporter  of  painted  vases^ 

In  Ionia,  including  the  islands  of  the  Aegean,  such  as  Rhodes  and 
Samos,  and  the  colonies  which  owed  their  origin  to  Asia  Minor,  such 
as  Naukratis  in  the  Egyptian  Delta,  the  art  of  vase-painting  from  the 
first  carried  on  the  iMycenaean  tradition,  and  was  distinguished  by  its 
naturalism  and  originality,  and  by  the  bold  and  diverse  effects  pro- 
duced by  variety  of  colour  or  novelty  of  subject.  In  its  earlier  phases, 
represented  by  the  pottery  found  in  Rhodes,  Samos,  and  Naukratis, 
the  ornamentation  is  more  or  less  elementary,  consisting  of  friezes  of 
animals,  especially  lions,  deer,  and  goats.  These  figures  stand  out 
sharply  in  black  against  the  creamy-white  ground,  which  is  a notable 
characteristic  of  nearly  all  Ionic  pottery,  and  details  are  brought  out 
by  means  of  engraved  lines,  patches  of  purple  pigment,  or  by  drawing 
])arts  of  the  figure,  especially  the  head,  in  outline  on  the  clay  ground. 
Another  characteristic  is  the  general  use  of  small  ornaments,  such  as 
rosettes  and  crosses,  in  great  variety  of  form,  to  cover  the  background 
of  the  designs,  and  obviate  the  necessity  of  leaving  vacant  spaces,  so 
abhorrent  to  the  early  Greek  mind.  It  is  probable  that  this  system  of 
decoration  owes  much  to  Assyrian  textile  fabrics. 

The  best  example  of  early  Ionic  pottery  is  a remarkable  plate  or 

^ See  Plate  lxix.  for  an  example. 


170 


n.ATh:  i.xx! 


COKIN' lUI AN  VASKS 

(llK'lllsil  MISI'IM) 


PLATE  LX XI I 


rill',  r KAXCOIS-VASK 

(I  l.(  )K1-..NC1.) 


IONIC  POTTERY 


phuLV  from  Rhodes  in  the  British  Museum,  on  which  is  represented 
the  combat  of  Menelaos  and  Hector  over  the  body  of  Euphorbos  ; ^ the 
names  are  inscribed  over  the  figures,  and  this  is  the  earliest  known 
instance  of  a mythological  subject  on  a painted  vase.  It  is  a remini- 
scence rather  than  an  illustration  of  Homer,-  a noticeable  feature  in 
early  vases,  which  seldom  follow  literary  sources  at  all  closely.  The 
date  of  this  painting  is  not  later  than  GOO  n.c. 

During  the  sixth  century  painting  made  rapid  strides  among  the 
Ionian  peoples,  as  we  have  already  seen  in  Chapter  viii.,  in  speaking 
of  the  Clazomenae  sarcophagi.  These  are  in  many  respects  closely 
paralleled  by  the  vases.  ^In  course  of  time  the  old  method  of  painting 
on  a white  ground  was  given  up  in  favour  of  the  red  glaze  which  is 
characteristic  throughout  of  Attic  vases,  and  finally  by  the  end  of  the 
century  the  assimilation  with  the  latter  wares  became  complete.  The 
disappearance  of  the  Ionian  schools  of  art  was  mainly  due  to  the 
Persian  conquests  towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  which  drove 
their  representatives  to  Athens  and  Italy. 

One  class  of  these  later  Ionic  vases  deserves  special  mention  for  its 
original  character  and  the  interest  of  its  subjects.  This  is  a series  of 
cups  painted  in  black  and  purple  on  a cream-coloured  ground,  the 
designs  being  in  the  interior.  They  date  from  the  early  part  of  the  sixth 
century,  and  although  none  have  been  found  there,  evidence  points  to 
their  being  made  at  Cyrene  in  North  Africa.  The  most  remarkable  is 
a cup  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  at  Paris,  representing  Arkesilaos, 
King  of  Cyrene  from  580  to  550  n.c.,  weigliing  out  bales  of  the  silphium 
plant  (asafoetida)  for  exportation  in  a shij).^  This  plant  was  a product 
of  the  country,  and  a great  source  of  its  revenue,  and  is  represented  on 
many  of  the  coins.  Other  subjects  are  Zeus  and  his  eagle.  Atlas  and 
Prometheus,  Kadmos  slaying  the  dragon,  and  Pelops  with  the  horses 
given  him  by  Poseidon.  Space  forbids  to  describe  the  more  typically 
Ionian  fabrics  of  this  period,  those  which  were  actually  made  in  Asia 
Minor  or  the  adjoining  islands,  but  all  display  the  same  characteristics 
of  originality  of  subject,  vivid  detail,  and  brightness  of  aspect.^ 

^Ve  turn  now  to  AVestern  Greece,  wliere  we  find  Corinth  almost 
monopolising  the  industry  of  pottery  for  some  150  years.  The  vases 


' Plate  i.xx. 

“ In  the  I/iad  Menelaos  kills  Euphorbos,  but  it  is  over  the  body  of  Patroklos  that  he  hg'hts 
with  Hector.  ^ Plate  i.xx. 

* See  j^enerally  ^V^alters,  Ancient  Pottery,  i.  Chap.  viii. 


171 


GREEK  VASES 


of  Corinth,  of  Avhich  large  numbers  have  been  found  in  the  locality, 
often  bearing  inscriptions  in  the  peculiar  Corinthian  alphabet,  show  a 
continuous  progress  from  the  simplest  ornaments  to  fully  developed 
black-figure  vases  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  Attic  wares.  In 
the  earliest  specimens,  as  in  those  of  Ionia,  Oriental  influence  is  very 
strong,  the  surface  being  so  crowded  with  rosettes  and  other  subsidiary 
ornaments  that  the  main  design  is  hardly  visible  and  the  background 
almost  disappears.  The  general  effect  is  that  of  a rich  Oriental  em- 
broidery ; and  the  subjects  are  largely  chosen  from  the  fantastic  and 
monstrous  creations  of  Assyrian  art,  such  as  the  Sphinx  and  Gryphon. 
The  vases  are  mostly  small,  and  decorated  with  one  or  two  figures  of 
animals  or  monsters ; the  ground  varies  from  cream  to  yellow,  and  the 
figures  are  black  with  a lavish  use  of  purple  for  details.^ 

But  before  the  growing  sense  that  human  action  is  the  most  appro- 
priate subject  for  the  vase-painter.  Orientalism  begins  to  give  way ; 
the  ground-ornaments  diminish  and  disappear,  the  friezes  of  animals 
are  restricted  to  the  borders  of  the  designs;  and  human  figures  are 
introduced,  first  singly,  then  in  friezes  or  groups,  and  finally  engaged 
in  some  definite  action,  such  as  combats  or  hunting-scenes.  In  the 
last  stage  Greek  myths  and  legends  are  freely  employed.  A new 
development,  which  was  traditionally  associated  with  Eumaros  of 
Athens  (p.  144),  was  the  distinguishing  of  female  figures  by  the  use 
of  white  for  flesh  tints. 

Meanwhile  a somewhat  similar  development,  though  represented 
by  comparatively  few  vases,  was  going  on  at  Athens,  where  the  adop- 
tion of  Corinthian  and  Ionian  technical  improvements  evolved  by  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century  the  fully-developed  black-figure  style, 
which  by  degrees  supplanted  or  assimilated  all  the  other  schools.  The 
impetus  to  this  advance  was  no  doubt  due  to  the  beneficent  rule  of  the 
tyrant  Peisistratos  and  his  successors  (565-510  B.C.),  which  did  so  much 
for  culture  and  art  at  Athens. 

At  the  head  of  the  new  development  stands  the  famous  FraiK^^ois 
vase  in  the  Museum  at  Florence,  which  was  found  by  M.  Francois  at 
Cliiusi  in  1844.“  Its  shape  is  that  of  a krater  or  mixing-bowl  (Fig.  14), 
and  it  bears  the  signatures  of  its  maker  and  decorator  in  the  form 
‘ Ergotimos  made  me,  Klitias  painted  me,’  the  first  of  a long  series  of 
signed  Athenian  vases,  though  in  Boeotia  and  at  Corintli  signatures  had 
already  been  known  from  several  instances.  It  might  be  described  as 
a Greek  mythology  in  miniature,  with  its  numerous  friezes  and  panels 


^ Specimens  are  g'iven  on  Plate  lxxi. 
172 


- See  Plate  lxxii. 


l'LAJ£.  LAAJIJ 


H KN'AIC  AM  l-HOk. 


PLATE  LXXir 


1 

I 

i 


1.  A.Ml'HORA  \\\  NIKUS'J  IIKNKS 

2.  VASK-PAIN'I  lNCr  l!V  KXl-'.KIAS:  COMliAT  OF  HFRAKUvS  AND  OKR\'ON 

(loUN'KIO) 


BLACK-FIGURED  VASES 


of  figures,  comprising  such  subjects  as  the  return  of  Hephaistos  to 
Olympos,  the  wedding  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  the  landing  of  Theseus 
at  Naxos  with  Ariadne,  the  hunt  of  the  Calydonian  boar,  and  a combat 
of  Greeks  and  Centaurs.  All  the  figures  have  their  names  inscribed. 
As  a sort  of  pendant  to  this  vase  we  may  regard  an  amphora  in  the 
British  JMuseum,  a much  smaller  vase  with  only  two  subjects,  but 
similar  in  style.  The  main  theme  is  the  Birth  of  Athena,  treated  in 
a very  conventional  manner  (cf.  p.  100). 

The  general  technique  of  the  black-figured  vases  has  already  been 
described  : the  black  figures  in  silhouette  on  the  red  glazed  clay,  the 
engraved  lines  for  the  outer  contours  and  inner  details,  and  the  whites 
and  purples  used  for  the  drapery,  the  hair  of  old  men,  the  flesh  of 
women,  and  other  features.  Generally  speaking,  purple  is  used  more 
freely  on  the  older  vases,  white  on  the  later ; towards  the  end  of  the 
century,  when  the  new  red-figure  fashion  was  gaining  ground,  they 
were  almost  entirely  dropped. 

The  drawing  is,  as  might  be  expected,  somewhat  stiff*  and  con- 
ventional, though  a great  advance  in  the  direction  of  freedom  was 
attempted  before  the  style  went  out.  One  of  its  chief  features  is  the 
tendency  to  give  tapering  extremities  to  human  figures,  which  at  times 
is  absurdly  exaggerated.  Many  vases,  otherwise  carefully  and  delicately 
executed,  are  marred  by  an  excess  of  mannerism  and  afl*ectation,  as  in 
the  works  of  the  artists  Amasis  and  Exekias.  The  treatment  of  drapery 
is  a good  indication  of  date,  ranging  from  flat  masses  of  colour  to 
oblique  flowing  lines  or  angular  falling  folds. 

The  shapes  most  commonly  employed  by  the  Athenian  potters 
of  this  period  are  the  amphora,  hydria,  kylix,  oinochoe,  and  lekythos 
(see  Fig.  14),  the  first-named  being  the  most  popular.  A special  class 
of  amjihorae  is  formed  by  the  Panathenaic  vases  given  as  prizes  in  the 
Athenian  games,  which  were  adorned  with  a figure  of  the  patron 
goddess  Athena  on  one  side  and  a representation  of  the  contest  in 
which  they  were  won  on  the  other Some  of  these  can  be  dated  by 
the  names  of  archons  which  they  bear,  as  late  as  the  fourth  century, 
the  old  method  of  painting  in  black  figures,  and  the  stiff*  conventional 
type  of  the  goddess,  being  preserved  for  religious  reasons. 

The  chief  interest  of  black-figured  vases  is  really  derived  from  their 
subjects,  which  range  over  every  conceivable  field  ; the  proportion  of 
myth  and  legend  to  scenes  from  daily  life  is  much  greater  than  in 
the  succeeding  period.  They  include  groups  of  Olympian  and  other 

^ See  Plate  lxxiii. 


173 


(IREEK  VASE8 


deities,  and  the  various  scenes  in  which  they  take  part,  such  as  the 
battle  of  tlie  gods  and  giants  ; Dionysos  and  his  attendant  Satyrs, 
xMaenads,  etc.  ; the  labours  and  exploits  of  Herakles  and  other  heroes ; 
subjects  taken  from  the  tale  of  Troy  and  other  less  familiar  legends; 
and  scenes  from  daily  life,  battle-scenes,  athletics,  the  chase,  and  so 
on.  The  same  classification  of  course  holds  good  for  the  later  periods 
of  vase-painting  with  some  exceptions.  The  proportion  of  genre  scenes 
becomes  greater,  and  some  myths  disappear,  others  rise  into  pro- 
minence; new  deities,  such  as  Eros  (Love)  and  Nike  (Victory),  appear 
for  the  first  time  ; and  generally  speaking,  the  subjects  are  characterised 
by  a sentimentality  or  tendency  to  emotion  which  is  completely  lacking 
in  the  conventional  stereotyped  compositions  of  the  sixth  century 
artist. 

Among  the  favourite  subjects  are  the  Birth  of  Athena  from  the 
head  of  Zeus  (cf.  p.  100) ; the  encounters  of  Herakles  with  the  Nemean 
lion,  with  the  triple-bodied  Geryon,^  or  with  the  Amazons,  and  the  con- 
veying of  the  hero  by  Athena  in  her  chariot  to  Olympos.  In  the  next 
period  we  shall  see  that  Theseus  takes  the  place  now  occupied  by 
Herakles,  but  at  present  the  only  scene  from  his  labours  is  the  slaying 
of  the  Minotaur.  Among  other  heroes,  Perseus  beheads  the  Gorgon, 
and  Peleus  struggles  to  hold  Thetis ; and  of  Trojan  scenes,  the  com- 
monest are  Greek  warriors  playing  at  draughts,  and  the  ambuscade  of 
Achilles  for  Troilos  and  Polyxena. 

A remarkable  feature  of  all  such  scenes  is  that  a stereotyped  form 
of  composition  is  invariably  adopted,  at  least  for  the  principal  figures  ; 
but  minor  variations  are  generally  to  be  found,  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
number  of  bystanders,  and  it  is  almost  an  impossibility  to  find  any  two 
vase-paintings  which  are  exact  duplicates.  The  form  of  the  composition 
was  partly  determined  by  the  field  available  for  the  design ; when  this 
took  the  form  of  a long  frieze,  the  space  was  filled  up  with  a series  of 
spectators  or  the  repetition  of  typical  groups ; but  when  the  design  is 
on  a framed  panel,  or  confined  by  ornamental  borders,  the  method  of 
treatment  is  adaj)ted  from  that  of  a sculptured  metope,  and  the  figures 
limited  to  two  or  three.  In  many  cases  it  is  difficult  to  decide,  in  the 
absence  of  inscriptions,  whether  a scene  has  a mythological  signification 
or  not ; the  mythological  types  are  over  and  over  again  adopted  for 
scenes  of  ordinary  life,  even  to  the  divine  attributes  or  poses  of  certain 
figures. 

Among  the  artists  of  the  period  who  have  left  their  names  on  the 

* See  I’Jate  lxxiv.,  lower  fig.  (vase  by  Exekias). 


174 


INTRODUCTION  OF  RED-FIGURE  STYLE 

vases,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  the  most  conspicuous  is 
Nikosthenes,  a painter  of  some  originality,  from  Avhose  hand  we  have 
over  seventy  examples,  a few  being  in  the  red-figure  method/  He  is 
supposed  to  have  introduced  at  Athens  a revival  of  the  Ionic  fashion 
of  painting  on  a cream-coloured  ground  instead  of  red,  of  which  some 
very  effective  examples  have  been  preserved.  Many  of  the  signed 
vases  are  cups,  bearing  nothing  more  than  the  artist’s  name  and  some 
appropriate  motto,  such  as  ‘ Welcome,  and  drink  deep.’ 

The  sudden  reversal  of  technical  method  involved  in  the  change 
from  black  figures  on  red  ground  to  red  figures  on  black  is  not  at  first 
sight  easy  of  explanation.  We  have  examples  of  artists  like  Nikos- 
thenes, who  used  both  methods,  sometimes  on  the  same  vase,  and  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  two  went  on  for  some  years  concurrently.  As, 
however,  no  intermediate  stage  is  possible,  there  is  no  question  of 
development  or  gradual  transition.  The  new  style  was,  in  fact,  a bold 
and  ingenious  invention.  It  is  possible  that  it  was  suggested  by  a 
small  class  of  vases  in  which  the  figures  are  painted  in  the  black-figure 
method,  but  have  the  converse  appearance,  that  is  to  say,  that  the 
ground  is  black,  and  the  figures  are  painted  on  in  a thick  red  pigment. 
It  may  well  have  occurred  to  the  artist  that  he  could  obtain  the  same 
effect  merely  by  leaving  the  figures  unpainted  while  covering  the  rest 
of  the  vase  with  the  black  varnish. 

The  change  must,  however,  be  closely  associated  with  the  career  of 
an  artist  named  Andokides,  who  not  only  produced  vases  in  both 
methods,  but  also  several  in  which  the  two  are  combined.  In  two  or 
three  cases  the  subject  is  actually  the  same  on  each  side,  almost  every 
detail  being  repeated,  except  that  the  colouring  is,  to  use  a heraldic 
term,  ‘counter-changed.’ 

As  regards  the  date  at  which  the  change  took  place,  it  was  formerly 
placed  well  on  in  the  fifth  century,  on  account  of  the  great  advance  in 
drawing  which  most  of  the  red-figured  vases  exhibit,  as  compared  with 
the  black.  They  were  thus  regarded  as  contemporary  with  Polygnotos 
(see  p.  149),  if  not  with  Pheidias.  Put  since  the  excavations  on  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens  have  yielded  numerous  fragments  belonging  quite 
to  the  height  of  the  red-figure  period,  which  must  be  earlier  than 
480  ]i.c.,  it  has  become  iiecessary  to  find  an  earlier  date  for  its 
commencement.  This  is  now  usually  placed  at  about  520  n.c.,  in  the 
i\ge  of  the  Peisistratids. 

’ Plate  Lxxiv.  (upper  fig.)  gives  one  of  his  typical  black-figured  amphorae. 

1 / o 


GREEK  VASES 


It  may  be  well  here  to  restate  briefly  the  method  used  in  the  pro- 
duction of  these  vases,  as  follows : — The  artist  sketched  his  desisrn  on 
the  red  clay  with  a fine-pointed  tool ; he  then  surrounded  the  figures 
with  a layer  of  black  varnish  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  wide,  by 
means  of  a brush,  or,  as  recent  researches  have  rendered  probable,  with 
a feather  pen  ; this  prevented  the  varnish  subsequently  laid  on  over  the 
surfiice  of  the  whole  vase  from  running  over  the  design.  Finally,  inner 
details,  such  as  features  or  folds  of  drapery,  were  added  with  a brush  or 
pen  as  before,  in  fine  black  lines ; and  further  details  were  expressed 
by  a wash  of  black  thinned  out  to  brown,  or  by  the  application  of 
purple  (and  later  of  white)  pigments. 

The  red-figure  period  is  usually  subdivided  into/four,  showing  the 
chief  stages  of  development^,  and  known  as  the  severe,  strong,  fine,  and 
late  fine  periods.  It  will  be  convenient  to  consider  each  of  these 
separately,  noting  in  each  case  the  chief  exponents  of  the  art. 

In  the  severe  period,  it  is  important  to  notice  that  there  is  no  marked 
advance  on  the  black-figured  vases  as  regards  style.  The  figures  are 
still  more  or  less  conventional  and  stiff,  and  some  of  the  vases  even 
show  signs  of  the  same  decadence  as  the  latest  black-figured.  The  real 
development  is  partly  in  a technical  direction,  partly  in  the  intro- 
duction of  new  subjects.  Although  it  was  probably  in  the  amphorae, 
as  in  those  painted  by  Andokides,  that  the  change  of  style  had  its 
origin,  the  new  developments  are  best  seen  in  the  kylix,  a form  of  vase 
which  now  sprang  into  popularity,  and  called  forth  the  chief  efforts  of 
the  principal  artists.  Its  curved  surface  gave  ample  scope  for  skilful 
effects  of  drawing  and  decorative  arrangement,  and  its  perfecting  as  a 
work  of  decorative  art  was  the  great  glory  of  the  earlier  red-figure 
painters.  For  other  shapes,  such  as  the  hydria  and  the  lekythos,  the 
old  method  seems  for  a time  to  have  been  preferred. 

The  most  typical  artist  of  the  period  was  Epiktetos,  and  other 
famous  cup-painters  were  Pamphaios,  Kachrylion,  and  Phintias.  The 
earliest  cups  differ  little  in  general  decorative  arrangement  from  the 
later  black-figured,  the  main  portion  of  the  exterior  designs  being  filled 
with  a pair  of  large  eyes,  the  meaning  of  which  is  quite  unknown,  but 
they  are  first  found  on  the  later  Ionic  vases,  especially  on  the  cups. 
The  figure  decoration  was  thus  limited  to  a confined  space  in  the 
middle  of  each  side,  in  which  was  painted  a single  figure  of  a warrior  or 
athlete ; under  the  handles  was  placed  a palmette  or  some  simple 
device.  The  artist’s  chief  attention  Avas  in  fact  devoted  to  the  interior, 
though  even  liere  his  first  attempts  Avere  limited.  But  although  he 
176 


PLATE  LXXW 


VASI'M'AIX  rixc  i;v  KIIMIROXIOS  ; HKRAKLKS  AX  I ) (IKRNOX 

(MLMCH  Ml  Sia  m) 


PLATE  LXXVI 


I.  \'.\SI'.-I>.\LVI  IMi  |;\  DURIS;  SCImM':  I \ A SCII(H)|. 

(i;i-;kun  MiMawi) 

L'.  \ASK-I>AI\'I  INC  l‘A  IIIKRON;  K U-:USI  i\  I A N AND  OTIIKR  l)Klll|.„s 

(liKMIlSIl  -MUSKUM) 


EUPHRONIOS 


had  not  as  yet  realised  the  possibility  of  an  elaborate  composition,  he 
did  learn  that  the  circular  space  gave  ample  scope  for  his  newly- 
acquired  drawing  abilities,  and  so  we  have  a series  of  single  figures  of 
young  men,  girls,  or  Satyrs,  in  all  kinds  of  attitudes — kneeling,  running, 
stooping,  carrying  vases,  or  seated  on  couches — all  the  figures  being 
conceived  with  the  object  of  filling  the  space  as  far  as  possible.  This 
was  a thoroughly  Greek  characteristic,  Avell  exemplified  on  the  gems 
and  coins. 

By  degrees  more  attention  was  paid  to  the  exterior  designs ; the 
eyes  were  dropped,  and  the  figures  replaced  by  grou})s,  though  still  of 
a simple  kind ; and  it  is  not  until  the  end  of  the  period  that  regular 
compositions,  arranged  as  friezes  and  telling  some  story,  are  introduced. 
Epiktetos  was  throughout  his  career  a thoroughly  ‘ archaic  ’ artist,  but 
considerable  advance  was  made  by  Kachrylion,  who  stands  on  the 
verge  of  the  succeeding  stage. 

The  sf}'0?ig‘  period  centres  round  the  name  of  Euphronios,  with 
whom  we  must  associate  a really  great  artistic  movement.  He  never 
tires  of  inventing  new  subjects  or  new  poses,  or  of  attempting  to  con- 
quer technical  and  artistic  difficulties,  and  he  may  be  held  to  represent 
the  stage  of  development  in  painting  traditionally  associated  with 
Kimon  of  Kleonae  (p.  147),  who  ‘contrived  various  expressions,  indi- 
cated folds  of  drapery,  and  invented  foreshortening,  representing  figures 
looking  up,  down,  and  backwards.’  It  is  needless  to  say  that  this 
marks  a very  great  advance  on  the  old  limitations  of  figures  in 
profile,  to  which  the  black-figure  silhouettes  were  confined.  Hitherto 
no  advance  has  been  made  beyond  the  conventionality  of  Egyptian 
art,  in  which,  though  the  body  may  be  to  the  front,  the  face  is  always 
in  profile.  But  from  the  time  of  Euphronios  (500-4G0  b.c.)  onwards 
we  observe  the  rapid  perfecting  of  linear  drawing  to  a stage  of  perfect 
freedom. 

His  style  is  characterised  both  by  grandeur  and  beauty,  combined 
with  elegance  and  ease  in  composition,  and  a careful  attention  to  the 
smallest  details.  Ten  vases  with  his  signature  ai-e  known,  but  as  in 
some  cases  he  only  signs  his  name  as  potter  with  the  word  iTroCrjcre, 
made,’  we  cannot  be  absolutely  certain  that  he  painted  (eypaipe)  them 
all  himself.^  All  but  two  (a  krater  in  the  Louvre  and  a psyJdei'  or 
wine-cooler  at  St.  Petersburg)  are  cups,  and  most  of  them  are  painted 

^ \V^here  an  artist  signs  eVoiTjo-e,  it  is  generally  assumed  that  he  both  made  and  painted  the 
vase.  But  we  know  that  in  one  case  Euphronios  made  a vase  which  another  artist  painted. 
H ence  the  uncertainty  in  his  case. 


G.  A.— 12 


177 


GREEK  VASES 


with  mythological  subjects,  such  as  the  contest  of  Herakles  with 
Geryon  (IMunich),^  his  bringing  the  boar  to  Eurystheus  (British 
Museum),  or  the  pursuit  and  death  of  Troilos  (Perugia).  One  frag- 
mentary cup  in  Berlin  is  painted  in  polychrome  on  a white  ground 
(see  next  page).  The  Troilos  vase  is  an  instance  of  a new  develop- 
ment of  the  ‘ strong  ’ period,  combining  the  various  stages  of  a story 
on  the  exterior  and  interior  designs  of  a cup.  A fine  example  of 
an  interior  composition  is  on  a cup  in  the  Louvre,  representing 
Theseus’  descent  into  the  sea ; the  draperies  are  especially  beautiful. 

Of  lus  contemporaries,  Ouris,  Hieron,  and  Brygos  take  front  rank, 
eacli  with  his  own  marked  individuality.  Ouris  shows  a preference 
for  quiet  grace  rather  than  violent  action,  and  for  slim  nude  figures.^ 
Hieron’s  tendency  is  to  sentimental  figures  and  idealised  scenes  of 
daily  life ; Brygos  exhibits  a fondness  for  realism  and  copiousness 
of  detail,  and  really  stands  on  the  threshold  of  the  next  stage  in 
his  approach  to  complete  freedom  of  drawing.  All  three  are,  like 
Euphronios,  essentially  kylix-painters,  though  they  use  other  forms 
at  times,  and  the  exquisite  shapes  of  their  vases  and  the  manner 
in  which  the  compositions  are  adapted  to  the  curved  surfaces  have 
never  been  surpassed.  In  particular  we  may  mention  a cup  by 
Hieron  in  the  British  Museum  (a  kotyle  or  beaker,  not  a kylix)  with 
a group  of  the  Eleusinian  deities,  a eomposition  of  great  beauty 
and  richness.^ 

In  the  fine  style  (400-140  b.c.)  breadth  of  effect  and  dignity  are 
aimed  at,  and  although  the  cups  reached  their  zenith  under  the  great 
masters  of  the  last  stage,  yet  for  the  red-figured  vases  on  the  whole, 
this  may  be  regarded  as  exhibiting  the  perfection  of  technique  and 
drawing,  free  from  archaism,  yet  without  any  signs  of  degeneration.  In 
many  of  tlie  larger  vases  the  scenes  are  of  a pictorial  character,  with 
landscape  accessories  and  groups  of  figures  ranged  at  different  levels  ; 
and  we  may  perhaps  see  in  these  a reflection  of  the  influence  of  the 
painter  Bolygnotos,  now  at  the  height  of  his  activity  (see  above, 
p.  151).  The  signed  vases  in  this  period  are  few  in  number,  and  include 
hardly  any  cups  ; but  there  is  one  by  Erginos  and  Aristophanes,  with 
a vivid  series  of  scenes  from  the  battle  of  the  gods  and  giants.  To 
the  end  of  this  period  belongs  the  beautiful  hydria  in  the  British 
IMuseum  by  the  painter  Meidias,  which  is  justly  celebrated  for  its 

^ See  Plate  lxxv. 

^ Plate  Lxxv’i.  (upper  fig.)  gives  an  example  of  his  work — a scene  in  a school. 

^ See  ibitl.,  lower  fig. 

178 


PLATE  L.V.Vr// 


\' \SI':  l!V  M KID  IAS 
(iJKirisH  muskum) 


PLATE  LXXVIll 


x’Asi'.s  wmi  I'AiNTiNc  ()\  wiiiri';  (;rol'M) 

(UKIIIMI  jMUM'.LM) 


RED-FIGURED  VASES 


richness  of  decoration  and  delicacy  of  execution/  There  is  in  this 
period  a decided  reaction  in  favour  of  mythological  subjects. 

In  the  late  fine  style,  which  begins  about  440  e.c.,  the  pictorial 
effect  is  preserved,  but  the  vases  rapidly  deteriorate  in  merit ; the  love 
of  over-refinement  and  the  newly-perfected  skill  in  drawing  impel  the 
artist  to  produce  hurried,  careless  compositions,  crowded  with  groups 
of  figures  which  have  no  merit  or  interest.  The  fashion  also  arose 
of  enhancing  the  designs  by  means  of  accessory  colours,  such  as 
white,  laid  on  in  masses,  blue  and  green,  and  even  gilding.  Athletic 
and  mythological  subjects  are  thrust  into  the  background,  and  the  life 
of  women  and  children  comes  more  to  the  front,  especially  on  the 
smaller  vases,  some  of  which  seem  to  have  been  used  as  playthings. 

In  this  period  we  first  find  examples  of  red-figured  vases  made 
outside  Athens,  in  the  colonies  of  the  Crimea  and  North  Africa 
(Cyrenaica) ; some  of  the  former  are  imposing  specimens,  with  elaborate 
mythological  compositions,  and  a tendency  to  gaudy  colouring  and 
general  showiness.  Figures  are  even  modelled  separately  in  relief 
and  attached  to  the  vase,  as  in  the  case  of  one  signed  by  Xenophantos 
representing  the  Persian  King  hunting,  and  the  vase  Avith  Athena  and 
Poseidon  mentioned  in  another  connection  (p.  102). 

Contemporary  with  the  red-figure  method  is  one  in  which  the 
figures  are  painted  on  a white  slip  or  engobe  resembling  pipe-clay, 
Avith  Avhich  the  Avhole  surface  Avas  covered  ; the  figures  are  draAvn  in 
outline  in  red  or  black,  and  partly  filled  in  Avith  Avashes  of  colour, 
chiefly  red,  purple,  or  broAvn,  but  sometimes  also  blue  or  green.  This 
style  seems  to  have  become  popular  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century,  and  Avas  employed  for  the  funeral  lekythi,  Avhich  came  into 
fashion  at  Athens  about  that  time.  These  vases,  Avhich  form  a class 
by  themseh^es,  Avere  made  specially  for  funeral  ceremonies  (see  p.  163), 
and  Avere  painted  Avith  subjects  relating  to  the  tomb,  such  as  the 
laying-out  of  the  corpse  on  the  bier,  the  ferrying  of  the  dead  over 
the  Styx  by  Charon,  or  (most  frequently)  mourners  bringing  offerings 
to  the  tomb.“  They  continued  to  be  made  Avell  on  into  the  fourth 
century,  but  the  later  examples  are  very  degenerate  and  careless. 

In  other  forms,  especially  the  kylix  and  the  pyxis  (toilet-box)  some 
exceedingly  beautiful  specimens  have  come  doAvn  to  us,  Avhich  show 
a delicacy  of  drawing  and  firmness  of  touch  ne\xr  surpassed ; and 
this  is  the  more  remarkable  if,  as  is  probable,  the  lines  Avere  drawn 
Avith  a brush.  Bearing  in  mind  that  Polygnotos  and  his  contempor- 

2 See  Plate  lxxviii. 


^ Plate  Lxxvii. 


179 


GREEK  VASES 


aries  painted  with  a limited  number  of  colours  on  a white  ground 
(p.  141),  we  may  fairly  see  in  these  vases  also  a reflection  of  the 
art  of  the  great  painters.  Among  them  no  finer  specimen  exists 
than  the  exquisite  cup  in  the  Ih-itish  Museum  with  the  interior  design 
of  Aphrodite  riding  on  a goose ; ^ the  design  is  entirely  in  brown 
outline,  exhibiting  to  the  full  the  qualities  of  drawing  of  which  we 
Iiave  just  spoken;  and  the  picture,  if  slightly  tinged  with  archaism, 
is  yet  full  of  grace  and  refinement. 

Turning  to  a general  consideration  of  the  subjects  on  the  red- 
figured  vases,  we  do  not  find  quite  the  same  variety  of  choice  as 
on  the  black-figured,  but  infinitely  more  freedom  in  composition  and 
treatment.  The  stereotyped  form  of  composition  is  almost  entirely 
discarded,  and  each  painter  was  free  to  form  his  own  idea  of  the  best 
treatment  of  a subject.  On  a very  beautiful  class  of  amphorae,  known 
as  ‘Nolan,’  from  the  place  where  they  were  mostly  found,  it  became 
the  fashion  to  paint  one,  or  at  most  two,  figures  on  each  side,  often  on 
a large  scale ; these  vases,  it  may  be  remarked  in  passing,  are  famous 
for  the  marvellous  lustre  of  their  black  glaze. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  the  patriotism  of  the 
Athenian  artist  finds  expression  in  the  growing  importance  which  he 
attaches  to  local  legends,  especially  those  of  Theseus,  the  typical  Attic 
hero.  This  may  have  been  partly  due  to  the  recovery  and  solemn 
interment  of  the  hero’s  bones  in  the  temple  dedicated  to  him,  which 
took  place  under  Kimon  in  469  b.c.  It  is  probable  that  Theseus  was 
regarded  as  the  typical  athlete  or  Attic  ephchos,  and  his  contests  as 
analogous  to  scenes  in  the  gymnasium.  Hence  the  grouping  on  some 
vases  of  scenes  from  his  labours  like  so  many  groups  of  athletes ; and 
hence  too  the  general  tendency  of  the  red-figured  vases,  especially 
the  cups,  to  become  a sort  of  glorification  of  the  Attic  ephebos,  the 
representations  of  whom,  running,  leaping,  boxing,  enjoying  himself 
at  the  banquet,  or  in  other  forms  of  revelry,  are  out  of  all  proportion 
to  other  subjects. 

We  find  evidence  of  this  too  in  another  form.  INlany  vases, 
especially  the  cups  of  the  severe  and  strong  periods,  bear  names  of 
persons  inscribed  on  the  designs  with  the  word  kalos,  ‘ fair  ’ or  ‘ noble,’ 
attached;  sometimes  merely  ‘the  boy  is  fair.’  The  exact  meaning 
of  this  practice  has  been  much  discussed,  but  evidence  seems  to 
show  that  the  persons  celebrated  must  have  been  quite  young  at 
the  time,  and  were  therefore  youths  fiimous  for  their  beauty  or 

^ Plate  LX XVI II. 


180 


RED-FIGURED  VASE8 


athletic  prowess.  Some  of  the  names  which  occur  are  those  of 
characters  celebrated  in  history,  such  as  Hipparchos,  Miltiades,  and 
Alcibiades ; and  though  they  cannot  always  be  identified  with  the 
historical  personages,  enough  evidence  has  been  obtained  in  this  way 
to  be  of  great  value  for  the  chronology  of  the  vases.  Further,  the 
practice  of  the  vase-painters  of  adopting  each  his  own  particular 
favourite  name  or  set  of  names  has  enabled  scholars  to  identify  many 
unsigned  vases  with  particular  schools,  and  thus  greatly  to  increase 
our  knowledge  of  the  characteristics  of  individual  artists. 

For  all  practical  purposes  the  red-figure  style  at  Athens  came  to 
an  end  with  the  fall  of  the  city  in  404  b.c.  Not  that  painted  vases 
then  ceased  to  be  made  entirely — the  funeral  lekythi  and  the  prize- 
vases  form  the  chief  examples  of  survivals — but  that  at  this  time  the 
decadence  set  in  with  terrible  rapidity,  and  such  as  were  produced 
were  quite  without  merit.  The  whole  tendency  of  the  fourth  century 
in  Greece  was  one  of  decentralisation  ; and  the  art  of  vase-painting 
was  no  exception,  for  we  find  that  there  must  have  been  a general 
migration  of  craftsmen  from  Athens,  not  only  to  the  Crimea  and 
North  Africa,  but  to  Southern  Italy,  which  now  becomes  the  chief 
centre  of  vase-production.  Here  there  were  many  rich  and  flourishing 
Greek  colonies  or  Graecised  towns  ready  to  welcome  the  new  art  as  an 
addition  to  their  many  luxuries,  such  as  Tarentum,  Paestum,  and 
Capua.  In  the  character  of  the  vases  of  this  period  we  see  their 
tendencies  reflected,  especially  in  their  splendour  and  showy  aspect, 
the  only  aim  being  size  and  gaudy  colouring. 

The  general  method  of  painting  remains  that  of  the  Athenian 
red-figure  vases,  but  without  any  idea  of  simplicity  and  refinement, 
as  is  seen  in  the  ornamentation,  in  the  choice  of  colours,  and  in  the 
drawing  of  the  figures.  Large  masses  of  white  are  invariably  employed, 
especially  for  the  flesh  of  women  or  of  Eros,  the  universally  present 
god  of  Love,  and  for  architectural  details.  Yellow  is  introduced  for 
details  of  features  or  hair,  and  for  attempts  at  shading ; nor  is  purple 
uncommon.  The  reverse  of  the  vases,  when  painted,  is  devoid  of  all 
accessory  colouring,  and  the  figures  (usually  two  or  three  young  men 
conversing  together)  drawn  with  the  greatest  carelessness,  as  if  not 
intended  to  be  seen.  There  is  throughout  a lavish  use  of  ornamental 
patterns,  such  as  palmettes,  wreaths  of  leaves,  or  ornaments  strewn 
over  the  field  (a  reversion  to  an  old  practice). 

The  drawing  having  now  become  entirely  free,  errs  in  the  opposite 
extreme ; the  forms  are  soft,  and  the  male  figures  often  effeminate. 

181 


GREEK  VASES 


A love  of  the  far-fetched  betrays  itself  in  variety  of  posture  and 
elaborate  foreshortening,  and  the  fanciful  and  richly-embroidered 
draperies  of  the  figures,  as  well  as  the  frequent  architectural  settings, 
seem  to  indicate  that  theatrical  representations  exercised  much 
influence  on  the  vases.  It  is  also  probable  that  the  great  painters  of  the 
fifth  and  fourth  centuries,  such  as  Zeuxis,  provided  sources  of  inspira- 
tion for  their  humble  fellow-craftsmen  ; but  rather  perhaps  in  the 
subjects  chosen  than  in  regard  to  style,  although  the  effect  of  many 
scenes  on  the  larger  vases  is  decidedly  pictorial. 

The  influence  of  the  stage,  already  hinted  at,  is  manifested  in  two 
directions,  one  the  result  of  tragedy,  the  other  of  comedy.  The 
former  may  be  seen  in  the  numerous  subjects  drawn  directly  from  the 
plays  of  Euripides,  such  as  the  Medeia,  the  Hecuba,  or  the  Hercules 
Furens,  as  well  as  iu  the  arrangement  of  the  mythological  scenes  on 
the  larger  vases,  and  the  elaborate  costumes  of  the  figures.  In  some 
cases  the  action  is  clearly  conceived  as  it  would  have  been  seen  on 
a stage,  with  an  architectural  background.  The  influence  of  comedy 
is  of  another  kind,  the  source  of  these  subjects  being  a kind  of  farce, 
often  burlesquing  myths,  which  was  popular  in  Southern  Italy  about 
the  fourth  century.  Scenes  are  re23resented  as  actually  taking  place 
on  a stage,  and  the  costumes  are  closely  related  to  those  of  the  old 
comedy  of  Aristophanes ; some  subjects  are  parodies  of  myths,  others 
are  taken  from  daily  life,  such  as  a father  dragging  a drunken  youth 
home  from  a banquet. 

Scenes  from  daily  life  form  a large  proportion  of  the  subjects  on 
these  vases,  but  many  of  them  are  of  a purely  fanciful  and  meaningless 
character,  the  commonest  type  being  that  of  a young  man  and  a 
woman  exchanging  presents  of  toilet-boxes,  fruit,  or  other  objects. 
They  are  more  akin  to  the  designs  on  Dresden  china  or  the  AYatteau 
figures  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Many  vases  of  this  period,  especially  those  of  large  size,  were 
obviously  designed  expressly  for  funeral  purposes.  Some  of  these 
bear  representations  of  the  Under- AA^orld,  with  numerous  groups  of 
figures  such  as  Pluto  and  Persephone,  Herakles  and  Cerberus, 
Orpheus  and  Eurydike,  or  Furies  administering  punishments.  On 
otliers  we  have  representations  of  shrines  or  tombs,  sometimes  with 
effigies  of  the  deceased  in  them,  at  which  the  relatives  make  offerings 
and  libations,  as  on  the  Athenian  lekythi.^  The  worship  of  the  dead, 
as  here  indicated,  seems  to  have  been  universal  among  the  Greeks. 


182 


’ See  Plate  i.xxix. 


PLATE  LXXTX 


VASK.s  Ol'  SOU'I  HKKN  I IAIA  : 

I.  AI'UUAN  AMPHORA 
(hkkun  muskum) 

'L  VASK-I'AIN’I  INO  KV  ASS  I'KAS  : TIIK  MAD  HKRAKI.KS 

(MADKII)  musf.um) 


4 


VASES  or  SOUTHERN  ITALY 


The  vases  of  this  period  are  usually  grouped  in  three  or  four 
different  fabrics,  corresponding  to  the  ancient  districts  of  lAicania, 
Campania,  and  Apulia,  each  with  its  S})ecial  features  of  technique, 
drawing,  and  repertory  of  subjects.  In  Lucania  we  find  a restrained 
and  bold  style  of  drawing,  more  akin  than  the  other  fabrics  to  that  of 
the  preceding  period ; in  Campania,  a fondness  for  polychromy  com- 
bined with  careless  execution ; in  Apu  lia  a tendency  to  magnificence, 
as  shown  in  the  great  funeral  and  theatrical  vases  already  mentioned, 
followed  by  a period  of  decadence  in  whicli  were  made  small  vases  of 
fantastic  form  with  purely  decorative  subjects.  Besides  these,  we  have 
a school  of  Paestum,  represented  by  two  artists  who  have  left  their 
names  on  their  vases,  Assteas  and  Pytlion.  They  are  essentially 
pictorial  artists,  trained  in  Attic  traditions,  with  a love  of  elaborate 
detail  and  ))icturesque  grouping  of  figures,  and  a strong  preference  for 
mythological  subjects.  A well-known  example  of  Assteas’  style  is  a 
vase  in  Madrid-  representing  Herakles  destroying  his  children,  a subject 
recalling  the  Hercules  F urens  of  Euripides,  and  there  is  a fine  specimen 
of  Python’s  work  in  the  British  INluseum,  with  Alkmena,  the  mother 
of  Herakles,  placed  on  the  funeral  pile  by  her  husband  Amphitryon, 
and  the  rain-nymphs  quenching  the  flames. 

About  the  end  of  the  third  century  the  manufacture  of  painted 
vases  would  seem  to  have  been  rapidly  dying  out  in  Italy,  as  had 
long  been  the  case  elsewhere,  and  their  place  is  taken  by  unpainted 
vases  modelled  in  the  form  of  animals  and  human  figures,  or  ornamented 
with  stamped  and  moulded  reliefs,  which  in  their  turn  give  way  to 
the  plainer  Arretine  or  so-called  Samian  wares  of  the  Boman  period. 
In  all  these  fabrics  we  see  a tendency  to  the  imitation  of  metal  vases, 
which  with  the  growth  of  luxury  in  the  Hellenistic  Age,  entirely 
replaced  painted  pottery  both  for  use  and  ornament ; and  the  pottery 
of  the  period  is  reduced  to  a subordinate  and  utilitarian  position, 
merely  supplying  the  place  of  the  more  costly  wares  in  the  humbler 
spheres  of  life. 

* Plate  i.xxi-v. 


1S8 


CHAPTER  X 


(iltEKIv  TEUHA-COTTAS 


Terra-cotta  in  Architecture — Origin  of  sculpture  in  clay — Primitive  and  archaic 
types — Technical  processes — Uses — Tanagra  statuettes — Types  and  subjects — 
Differences  of  styles  and  fabrics — Forireries. 

Tfie  use  of  clay  among  the  Greeks  was  very  widely  prevalent, 
almost  more  so  than  their  use  of  bronze,  if  we  take  into 
consideration  the  enormous  quantities  of  objects  made  in  this 
material,  from  the  magnificently-decorated  funeral  vases  down  to  the 
humble  jar  of  earthenware,  which  fall  under  the  separate  heading  of 
Pottery. 

In  the  present  chapter  we  have  to  deal  mainly  with  one  branch 
of  the  subject,  that  of  artistic  work  in  baked  clay  or  terra-cotta, 
whether  the  purposes  for  which  the  work  was  devised  were  partly 
utilitarian  or  purely  ornamental.  Under  the  former  category  are 
included  the  uses  of  terra-cotta  for  architectural  purposes  or  for 
sepulchral  monuments ; the  latter  embraces  the  whole  series  of  terra- 
cotta statuettes  which  now-a-days  form  such  a charming  adjunct  to 
our  museums  of  antiquities. 

The  use  of  baked  clay  in  architecture  by  the  Greeks  forms  a very 
important  branch  of  the  subject,  as  has  already  been  implied  in  a 
previous  chapter.  In  early  times,  especially  in  the  Levant,  buildings 
were  made  of  unburnt  or  sun-dried  clay  bricks,  in  which  an  admixture 
of  straw  was  required  for  cohesion.  This  fact  helps  us  to  understand 
the  story  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt,  when  they  were  reduced  to 
difficulties  in  the  absence  of  straw  for  their  brick-making ; it  is  further 
illustrated  by  what  the  traveller  in  the  East  may  see  in  almost  any 
village  of  Palestine  or  Cyprus,  whole  series  of  houses  being  composed 
entirely  of  this  material.  Speaking  of  the  ‘ invention  ’ of  this  process 
in  Greece,  Pliny  supposes  that  the  idea  was  taken  from  swallows 
building  their  nests.  It  was  at  all  events  in  early  use  in  Greece,  and 
remains  of  walls  of  unburnt  brick  have  been  found  on  many  sites, 
184 


'I  KRRACO'l'TA  AN'  I’KRIXAL  ORNAME'.NTS  FROM  ITAIA' 

(lllUTISH 


rLA  i'h:  I XXXI 


|■l:RkA(’(  > I TA  K)\  s AN1»  l»OI  I s 

(liKI  I ISH  ML  SKLM) 


TERRA-COTTA  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


notably  in  the  Heraion  at  Olympia,  a building  of  great  antiquity, 
where  the  brick  walls  were  laid  on  a lower  course  of  stone,  and  the 
roof  was  entirely  of  terra-cotta.  Burnt  brick,  however,  though  gener- 
ally used  at  Rome  for  many  centuries,  was  seldom  employed  in  Greece, 
doubtless  owing  to  the  abundance  of  marble  and  good  building  stone. 
Where  brick  buildings  are  mentioned  by  ancient  authors,  they  are 
either  of  Oriental  origin,  like  the  walls  of  Ikibylon  and  the  palace  of 
Croesus  at  Sardis,  or  of  late  date  under  Roman  influences. 

Terra-cotta  ornamentation  for  buildings  was  at  first  in  very  general 
use  in  Greece,  down  to  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  b.c.  Its  scope, 
however,  gradually  became  more  restricted,  except  in  Sicily  and  Italy, 
and  in  the  more  important  buildings  its  place  was  entirely  taken  by 
marble  for  tiles  and  architectural  ornaments.  The  details  for  which 
terra-cotta  was  generally  used  include  the  two  kinds  of  roof- tiles — 
fiat  and  covering  tiles — the  cornices,  the  rows  of  spouts  along  the  sides 
for  carrying  off  water,  the  covering-slabs  along  the  edges  of  the  pedi- 
ments, and  the  antefixes  or  ornamental  terminations  of  the  covering- 
tiles  along  the  sides  of  the  building.  Among  the  last-named  we  find 
many  choice  examples  of  decoration  in  relief  at  all  periods.  In  the 
sixth  and  fifth  centuries  the  use  of  bright  colours,  such  as  red  and 
blue,  to  decorate  the  terra-cotta  ornaments  was  universal,  and  count- 
less painted  specimens  have  been  found  at  Olympia  and  elsewhere. 

In  Sicily  and  Italy  a practice  obtained  of  nailing  slabs  of  terra- 
cotta over  the  surface  of  the  stone-work,  originating,  no  doubt, 
in  the  period  when  buildings  were  of  wood,  and  the  terra-cotta  cover- 
ing was  necessary  for  protection.  These  slabs  were  either  painted 
or  decorated  with  patterns  in  relief,  and  a good  illustration  of  the 
method  is  afforded  by  the  remains  of  a temple  recently  excavated  at 
Civita  Lavinia,  the  ancient  Lanuvium,  by  the  late  Lord  Savile. 
They  are  now  in  the  British  iMuseum,  where  a conjectural  restoration 
of  part  of  the  building  has  been  effected.  These  remains  date  partly 
from  the  sixth,  partly  from  the  fourth  or  third  century  n.c. 

The  antefixes  or  terminating  roof-tiles,  which  played  a large  part 
in  the  decoration  of  temples,  were  decorated  with  all  kinds  of  subjects 
in  relief,  especially  in  the  archaic  period.  Comparatively  few  from 
Greek  sites  are  in  existence,  but  we  know  that  the  sculptor  Paionios 
(see  p.  108)  attained  distinction  by  the  figures  of  Victory  which  he  made 
to  adorn  the  roof  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  and  Pausanias 
speaks  of  some  early  examples  which  he  saw  in  Athens  representing 
Theseus  dashing  Skiron  into  the  sea,  and  Eos  (Dawn)  carrying  off 

185 


(4REEK  TERRA-COTTAS 


Kephalos  (‘the  Attic  boy’).  Two  similar  groups  were  found  in  Delos 
some  thirty  years  ago,  on  the  site  of  a temple  dating  from  425  b.c., 
representing  Boreas  carrying  off  Oreithyia  and  Eos  with  Kephalos. 
INlost  of  the  specimens  that  we  now  possess  are  from  Italy,  yet 
thoroughly  Greek  in  style.^ 

Terra-cotta  was  largely  used  in  connection  with  the  tomb,  especi- 
ally for  coffins  or  sarcophagi,  of  which  many  magnificently  painted 
examples  of  a very  early  date  liave  been  found  at  Clazomenae  in  Asia 
Minor  (see  above,  p.  14G).  It  was  also  customary  in  the  fourth  century 
15. c.  in  Italy  to  place  in  the  tombs  large  vases  with  moulded  decora- 
tions attaclied,  corresponding  to  the  painted  vases  of  the  same  period, 
with  funereal  subjects  (p.  182).  The  British  Museum  possesses  a good 
specimen  of  a sepulchral  urn  from  a tomb  at  Athens,  which  when 
found  contained  a jaw-bone  with  a small  coin  adhering  to  it,  placed 
there  as  a fee  to  Charon  when  the  deceased  was  ferried  across  the  Styx. 

Turning  now  to  the  more  important  and  perhaps  more  generally 
interesting  branch  of  the  subject,  we  may  proceed  to  trace  the  develop- 
ment of  working  in  clay  for  purely  artistic  purposes.  It  is  indeed 
characteristic  of  the  Hellenic  race  that  from  its  earliest  beginnings 
it  did  not  confine  itself  to  the  utilitarian  aspect  of  this  material,  but 
soon  learned  its  value,  as  an  easily  worked  substance,  for  the  produc- 
tion of  images,  not  only  of  deities,  but  of  animals  and  human  beings. 
The  history  of  the  Greek  word  for  sculpture  is  indicative  of  the 
antiquity  of  this  practice  ; from  the  word  TrXdacreLv,  which  means  literally 
‘ to  mould  or  knead,’  e.g.  in  wet  clay,  and  hence  to  model  in  any 
material,  was  derived  the  recognised  classical  word  plastike^  the 
‘ plastic  ’ art.  Both  Greek  and  Latin  writers  bear  witness  to  the 
primitive  use  of  clay  for  sculptured  images ; but  it  also  had  a formid- 
able rival  in  wood,  as  is  shown  by  the  parallel  development  of  the 
word  xoanon  (p.  70). 

Tradition  told  of  Prometheus  as  the  inventor  of  clay  images,  and 
Roman  poets  speak  of  tlieir  oldest  images  as  of  plain  unadorned 
clay ; but  the  earliest  sculptured  work  of  which  there  is  genuine 
literary  record,  was  a group  of  figures  of  sun-dried  clay,  representing 
Dionysos  feasting  in  the  house  of  Amphiktion,  which  Pausanias  saw 
in  the  Potters’  quarter  at  Athens.  Elsewhere  he  describes  the  ante- 
fixal  groups  already  mentioned,  which  being  of  baked  clay  must  have 
been  of  later  date. 


18G 


^ See  Plate  lxxx. 


ARCHAIC  TERRA-COTTAS 


But  modern  researclies  enable  ns  to  trace  statuettes  of  terra-cotta 
back  to  a far  remoter  origin.  In  Cyprus  and  elsewhere  rude  idols 
of  this  material  reach  back  to  the  Mycenaean  period,  and  among 
them  are  figures  of  goddesses  clasping  infants  to  their  breasts  whicli 
seem  to  be  the  product  of  some  primitive  form  of  nature-worship, 
even  as,  later,  Earth  (Gaia)  was  worshipped  as  the  Nursing-mother. 
This  idea  is  probably  of  Oriental  origin,  and  similar  rude  figures 
have  been  found  in  Chaldaea  and  Phoenicia.  The  next  stage,  corre- 
sponding to  the  Geometrical  period  in  Greek  pottery,  is  marked  by 
the  appearance  of  a series  of  columnar  or  board-like  figures,  in  which 
the  limbs  are  hardly — often  not  at  all — distinguished,  and  the  features 
sketchily  modelled,  or  only  roughly  indicated  in  black  paint.  These 
are  chiefly  found  in  Cyprus,  where  the  ‘ columnar  ’ type  prevails  ; in 
llhodes,  where  both  types  are  found ; and  in  Boeotia,  where  the 
‘ board  ’ type  was  most  jiopular.  They  date  from  about  the  seventh 
century  b.c.,  but  some  of  the  Boeotian  figures  show  comparatively 
developed  modelling  in  the  heads.  These  are  further  interesting  for 
the  manner  in  which  they  are  decorated  with  patterns  in  black  and 
purple,  recalling  the  contemporary  vases  of  that  district. 

These  are  followed  in  the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries  by  statuettes 
of  more  developed  archaic  style,  with  modelled  limbs  and  drapery, 
in  which  two  types  prevail,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others. 
These  are  the  standing  and  seated  fcmatc  jignres^  which,  as  we  have 
already  seen  in  Chapter  v.,  played  such  a prominent  part  in  the 
development  of  early  Greek  sculpture.  They  are  mainly,  as  far  as 
can  be  judged,  of  mythological  import,  representing  especially  the 
underworld  deities.  Demeter  and  Persephone ; but  the  same  types 
seem  to  have  been  used  indiscriminately  for  votive  offerings  in  temples 
and  for  funeral  purposes.  In  the  latter  case  they  were  originally 
regarded  as  habitations  for  the  souls  or  ghosts  of  the  departed, 
as  well  as  representations  of  the  protecting  deities  of  the  nether 
world.  The  primitive  Greek  mind  has  been  frequently  observed  to 
confuse  the  deity  with  his  worshipper,  and  in  many  cases  this  con- 
fusion manifests  itself  in  art  by  the  employment  of  the  same  type 
for  both  conceptions. 

Another  favourite  product  of  the  archaic  period  was  the  so-called 
funeral  mask  or  bust,  of  which  large  numbers,  chiefly  feminine,  have 
been  found  in  the  tombs.“  Here  again  Egyptian  influences  are  to 
be  detected,  the  idea  having  evidently  taken  its  rise  from  the  cofflns 


^ Examples  are  given  on  Plate  lxxxiii. 


2 ]hhl. 


187 


GREEK  TERRA-COTTAS 


wliich  we  see  modelled  in  the  upper  part  in  the  form  of  the  deceased 
person.  The  Greeks  converted  these  into  female  busts,  retaining  the 
hollowed-out  back,  and  by  tlie  addition  of  a veil  and  the  typical  high 
lieaddress  of  the  underworld  deities  evolved  presentments  of  their 
favourite  Demeter  and  Persephone.  We  read  of  such  a mask  in  the 
pages  of  Pausanias,  who  tells  us  that  at  Pheneus  in  Arcadia  a religious 
ceremony  took  place  in  wliich  a priest  wore  a mask  representing 
Demeter. 

Next,  there  is  a class  of  archaic  terra-cottas  which  are  obviously 
only  children’s  playthings  and  nothing  more,  and  were  buried  in  the 
tombs  of  children  as  if  for  their  use  in  a future  existence.  They 
comprise  dolls  with  jointed  limbs,  figures  of  horsemen  and  animals, 
and  other  objects,  such  as  boats  or  fruit.^  There  is  a pretty  epigram 
in  the  Greek  Anthology  which  tells  us  how  Timarete  dedicated  to 
Artemis  the  playthings  of  her  childhood,  including  her  dolls  and  their 
clothes : 

^ Maiden,  to  thee  before  her  marriage  Timarete  gives 
Her  cap,  her  tambourines,  her  favourite  ball, 

And  as  is  meet,  oh  ! Artemis,  the  maiden  brings 
Her  childhood’s  toys,  her  dolls,  their  clothes,  and  all.’ ' 

The  Greek  word  here  used  for  doll  is  Koprj,  ‘ girl  ’ or  ‘ maiden,’ 
a word  in  general  use  for  terra-cotta  figures  of  girls  at  the  period 
when  the  Tanagra  statuettes  were  in  fashion.  Some  of  these  little 
figures  are  very  charming  and  graceful  conceptions,  as  for  instance 
the  elf-like  figure  clad  in  red  and  blue  who  rides  on  a swan,  in  the 
British  Museum  collection;^  or  the  groups  representing  scenes  from 
daily  life,  a woman  making  pastry  with  a rolling-pin,  or  a barber  at 
work  on  a boy’s  head. 

Many  archaic  statuettes  again  are  of  a grotesque  nature,  or  cari- 
catures of  higher  type,  and  though  it  is  probable  that  the  majority 
are  purely  sportive  and  fanciful,  some  seem  to  be  actually  religious 
in  their  significance.  This  grotesque  element  in  Greek  religion  was 
no  new  thing;  it  played  a large  part  in  the  Eleusinian  mysteries, 
with  reference  to  the  time  when  Baubo  diverted  Demeter  from  her 
grief  by  coarse  jesting,  and  burlesque  acting  seems  to  have  been 
thought  appropriate  to  the  cult  of  the  mysterious  Cabeiric  deities. 

* In  a tomb  at  Kanieiros,  datiii^>:  about  480  b.c.,  were  found  two  reliefs,  two  fruits  in  terra- 
cotta, and  several  miniature  vases  ; in  another,  a bird,  two  dolls,  and  a figure  of  a child  in 
a cradle. 

2 Translation  by  Miss  Hutton,  Greek  Terra-cotta  Statuettes,  p.  4. 

^ See  for  this  and  other  figures  Plate  i.xxxi. 

188 


PLATE  LXXXH 


///.V.V.V7  7.J.  r 


ARCHAK 


GROTESQUES  AND  RELIEFS 

Some  of  these  terra-cotta  figures,  realistic  and  coarse  in  a high  degree, 
were  perhaps  offerings  for  reeovery  from  ehildbirth.  Others  take  the 
form  of  squatting  figures  of  Satyrs  and  other  grotesque  creations, 
and  this  type  has  been  traeed  to  an  Egyptian  origin  in  the  form  of 
Ptah-Socharis,  a deity  who  is  always  represented  crouching  with 
hands  on  knees  and  dwarfish  yet  exaggerated  proportions. 

Archaie  terra- eotta  work,  at  least  towards  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  eentury,  often  takes  the  form  of  reliefs,  made  from  moulds  and 
often  repeated.  These  are  usually  in  the  shape  of  small  plaques,  with 
or  without  background,  and  often  eut  a jour  in  a sort  of  open-work. 
The  exaet  purpose  for  which  they  were  made  is  somewhat  doubtful, 
but  some  are  elearly  of  a votive  character,  and  it  is  supposed  that 
they  were  dedicated  in  temples,  while  their  reetangular  form  renders 
it  probable  that  they  were  let  into  the  walls.  There  are  two  prineipal 
groups  of  these  reliefs,  known  respeetively  as  ‘ INIelian  ’ and  ‘ Locrian,’ 
from  the  sites  on  which  the  majority  have  been  found. 

The  INIelian  reliefs  are  usually  of  open-work,  and  are  eonfined  to 
the  island  of  INIelos  and  other  Aegean  sites ; they  are  all  of  advaneed 
archaic  style,  about  480  b.c.  Their  subjects  are  usually  mythologieal : 
Perseus  slaying  Medusa,  Bellerophon  attaeking  the  Chimaera,  or  Eos 
(Dawn)  carrying  off  Kephalos.^  The  other  group  is  represented  by 
reliefs  found  on  the  Acropolis  at  ^Vthens,  and  at  Locri  in  Southern 
Italy,  all  being  votive  plaques  with  figures  of  the  deities  to  whom 
they  were  dedieated,  Athena  in  one  case,  Persephone  in  the  other, 
or  with  appropriate  subjeets.  We  have  already  seen  that  it  was 
customary  to  decorate  temples  with  slabs  of  painted  or  sculptured 
terra-eotta,  and  no  doubt  these  served  a similar  purpose.  But  some 
of  the  smaller  reliefs,  ehiefly  in  the  form  of  Satyrs’  or  Gorgons’  heads, 
are  known  to  have  been  employed  in  the  decoration  of  tombs  and 
sarcophagi. 

The  proeesses  employed  in  the  manufaeture  of  terra-eottas  by  the 
Greeks  were  five  in  number,  though  it  does  not  follow  that  all  five 
were  necessarily  employed  in  the  produetion  of  any  one  objeet.  They 
were  as  follows:  (1)  the  preparation  of  the  clay;  (2)  moulding  and 
modelling;  (3)  retouehing  and  adding  details;  (4)  baking;  (5) 
colouring  and  gilding. 

There  appears  to  have  been  eonsiderable  variety  among  the  clays 
in  use  in  different  parts  of  the  Greek  world,  and  some,  sueh  as  that 

^ See  Plate  lxxxii. 


189 


GREEK  TERRA-COTTAS 


of  Cape  Kolias  in  Attica,  always  enjoyed  special  renown.  It  was 
from  this  latter  that  the  famous  painted  vases  were  principally  made. 
Some  potters  preferred  red  clay,  others  white  ; others  again  a mixture 
of  the  two  ; but  for  tlie  vases  a red  clay  was  usually  employed.  In 
the  terra-cottas  of  Athens  five  varieties  of  clay  have  been  noticed, 
in  those  of  Myrina  in  Asia  Minor  no  less  than  nine ; but  these  may 
be  partly  due  to  circumstances  of  firing  rather  than  intrinsic 
differences. 

The  earliest  terra-cottas  and  the  smaller  objects,  such  as  the  toys, 
were  produced  by  modelling  the  figure  in  a solid  mass ; but  sub- 
secpiently  the  use  of  a mould  became  almost  invariable.  The 
invention  of  modelling  in  clay,  or  rather  of  modelling  reliefs  as 
opposed  to  figures  in  the  round,  was  traditionally  ascribed  to  Eutades 
of  Sikyon  (see  p.  74)  who,  according  to  the  story  (which  varies 
somewhat  in  detail),  traced  the  portrait  of  his  daughter’s  lover  in  out- 
line on  the  wall  and  filled  it  in  with  clay.  Probably  he  hollowed  out 
the  lines  of  the  face  after  they  were  drawn,  and  impressed  wet  clay 
into  the  hollows,  by  means  of  which  he  obtained  the  result  in  relief. 
But  the  whole  story  must  be  received  with  caution. 

The  chief  advantages  of  the  use  of  a mould  were  the  scope  it  gave 
for  reducing  the  ‘ walls’  of  the  figure  to  the  smallest  possible  thickness, 
thereby  avoiding  the  danger  of  shrinkage  in  the  baking,  and  the  con- 
sequent extreme  lightness  obtained,  as  well  as  greater  accuracy  in 
detail.  The  mould  itself  was  of  terra-cotta  baked  very  hard ; many 
examples  of  these  moulds  are  preserved  in  our  museums,  as  well  as 
moulds  for  terra-cotta  vases  with  reliefs,  or  for  lamps.  The  heads  and 
arms  were  usually  modelled  separately  and  attached  afterwards,  the 
average  number  of  moulds  required  for  one  figure  being  about  four, 
but  some  of  the  more  elaborate  had  even  more. 

The  first  step  was  to  smear  the  inner  surface  of  the  mould  with 
moist  clay,  covering  every  part ; other  layers  were  then  added  to  the 
requisite  thickness.  The  back  was  made  separately,  either  in  a mould 
or  by  hand,  and  fitted  on;  it  was  in  most  cases  left  unmodelled,  or  with 
only  slight  indications  of  form,  and  almost  always  had  a circular  or 
rectangular  hole  left  in  it  to  allow  of  the  evaporation  of  moisture. 
Although  a whole  series  of  figures  was  frequently  cast  in  one  mould, 
there  were  many  devices  for  redeeming  such  series  from  the  charge  of 
monotony,  by  varying  the  pose  of  the  head  or  attaching  the  arms  in 
different  ways ; or,  again,  by  different  attributes,  varieties  of  colouring, 
and  otlier  small  details.  This  was  all  achieved  in  the  process  of 
190 


PROCESSES  OF  MANUFACTURE 


retouching,  the  chief  object  of  which  was  to  bring  out  details  by 
working  them  up  with  a tool. 

Herein  lies  the  reason  why  the  Tanagra  statuettes,  through  which 
runs  such  a strong  family  likeness,  yet  prove  so  marvellously  varied 
on  a close  inspection ; as  a E rench  writer  has  well  said : ‘ All  the 
Tanagra  figures  are  sisters,  but  few  of  them  are  twins.’  In  this  con- 
nection it  is  instructive  to  observe  two  statuettes  of  Eros  burning  a 
butterfly  with  his  torch,  which  are  in  the  British  JMuseum  collection  ; 
both  are  from  the  same  mould,  and  in  appearance  they  are  identical, 
except  for  the  colouring  that  remains  on  one  of  the  pair ; but  one 
stands  far  above  the  other  in  artistic  charm  because  it  is  more  finished 
in  detail  (see  Plate  i.xxxvi.). 

In  baking  the  terra-cottas,  the  great  danger  was  an  ill-regulated  or 
excessive  temperature,  which  for  this  purpose  was  much  lower  than 
required  for  the  highly-glazed  vases ; it  was  also  necessary  to  see  that 
all  moisture  evaporated,  yet  not  too  rapidly.  Plutarch  tells  a story  of 
a terrible  disaster  that  befell  the  terra-cotta  chariot  cast  for  the  temple 
of  .lupiteron  the  Capitol  at  Rome,  showing  how,  by  some  neglect,  the 
clay  swelled  up  to  such  an  extent  that  it  was  necessary  to  destroy  the 
kiln  to  extract  the  figure. 


As  a general  rule,  all  statuettes  were  coloured,  though  the  present 
appearance  of  many  may  not  suggest  it ; the  exceptions  are  chiefly 
among  the  earliest  and  latest  examples.  The  medium  by  means  of 
which  the  colour  was  laid  on  was  a white  ‘ slip’  of  a creamy  colour  and 
consistency,  with  which  the  whole  figure  (except  the  back)  was  coated; 
this  when  dry  became  very  flaky  and  thus  tended  to  drop  off,  carrying 
the  colours  with  it.  This  white  slip  was  retained  for  the  nude  parts 
and  often  for  the  drapery,  but  the  latter  was  frequently  stri])ed  with 
red  or  blue,  or  wholly  painted  in  one  of  these  colours.  For  features 
and  other  details,  such  as  the  hair,  black  and  red  were  employed,  or 
deep  yellow.  Gilding  was  more  rarely  used,  except  for  small  objects, 
imitation  jewellery  being  sometimes  made  in  later  times  in  gilded 
terra-cotta.  At  Athens  and  Tanagra,  and  more  frequently  in  the 
Sicilian  terra-cottas  of  the  Hellenistic  period,  an  enamelled  glaze  is 
sometimes  found,  usually  of  a grey  colour,  but  sometimes  of  })ink  or 
orange  to  suggest  flesh-tints. 


The  question  of  the  uses  to  which  the  terra-cotta  statuettes  were 
put  is  a very  difficult  one,  owing  to  the  varying  circumstances  under 
which  those  of  similar  type  have  been  found,  and  also  to  the  difficulty 

I9I 


GREEK  TERRA-C0TTA8 


in  many  cases  of  determining  whether  they  have  a mythological 
significance.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  tombs,  but  large  numbers 
come  from  the  sites  of  temples  and  sanctuaries,  and  they  have  even 
been  found  in  private  houses.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  they  were 
used  for  religious  purposes  and  funeral  ceremonies,  and  in  daily  life, 
and  that  even  if  tlieir  primary  signification  was  religious,  that  cannot 
have  been  their  exclusive  end. 

Idterary  evidence  tells  us  but  little,  though  Plato  alludes  to  the 
practice  of  hanging  up  small  figures  {korai)  in  shrines,  and  Demos- 
thenes condemns  the  Athenians  for  electing  ‘figure-head’  generals  ‘like 
makers  of  clay  figures  for  the  market.’  Later  writers  speak  of ‘those 
who  buy  korai  for  their  children,’  or  of  making  little  images  of  animals 
in  clay  in  order  to  trick  children  ; and  thus  we  see  that  a fourth  use  of 
terra-cotta  figures  was  that  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made,  as 
children’s  toys. 

As  regards  their  use  in  the  house,  whether  for  ornament  or  other- 
wise, we  have  as  yet  little  evidence  one  way  or  the  other;  but  it  may 
be  possible  that  many  of  those  found  in  the  tombs  had  previously 
served  some  such  purpose.  For  us  moderns,  accustomed  to  adorn 
our  houses  with  pretty  things,  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  the 
charming  Tanagra  statuettes,  devoid  as  they  apparently  are  of  all 
special  significance,  were  either  made  for  religious  or  funeral  purposes  ; 
yet  their  presence  in  such  numbers  in  the  tombs  calls  for  some 
explanation.^  Originally,  no  doubt,  the  terra-cottas  placed  in  the  tombs 
were  images  of  the  deities  placed  round  the  dead  to  protect  him,  as  we 
have  already  seen  in  speaking  of  the  archaic  types. 

In  time,  however,  though  the  customs  lingered  on,  the  symbolism 
became  obscured  and  the  religious  meaning  a mere  convention, 
while  the  growth  of  artistic  taste  side  by  side  with  a rationalising 
tendency  in  religious  ideas  transformed  the  votive  figures  into  mere 
objects  of  art.  Thus  the  archaic  types  were  transformed  into  mere 
genre  creations  : a group  of  the  Earth  as  nursing-mother  being  con- 
verted into  one  of  an  ordinary  mother  with  her  baby ; the  standing 
goddess,  with  a bird  or  flower  as  her  attribute,  into  the  girl  with  a 
flower  or  playing  with  a dove,  who  is  so  common  a type  among  the 
Tanagra  figures. 


^ Mention  should  be  made  here  of  a recent  acquisition  of  the  British  Museum,  the  contents  of 
the  tomb  of  a girl,  with  a figure  of  the  deceased  on  a throne,  as  if  deified,  surrounded  by  a bridal 
vase,  a spinning  implement,  a pair  of  boots,  and  other  objects  in  terra-cotta.  The  whole  find  is  of 
comparatively  late  date. 

192 


PLAIE  L.YA'.V/r 


T ANAC.KA  S I'A  rUK  I I KS 
(numsn  mlsku.m) 


I'LA'll-:  L.VA'M 


riCRKACO'l  lA  (iROl'l'S  OK  lHI  R I )-Ch:i\  TURV  SIAl.h:: 

].  \VOMI*:X  CONN’KRSI  NO  (FROM  MVRINA) 

2.  CIRI.S  I’l.ANINC,  WITH  K X I'CK  I .I,  l!( ) X l-:s  ( I R(  ).M  ('Al'l'A) 

(BKIIISH  .ML’SKI'.M) 


USES  OF  STATUETTES 


To  sum  up  the  question  as  briefly  as  possible,  it  may  be  laid  down 
as  a fair  statement  of  the  case  that  terra-cotta  figures  fall  under  two 
beads : those  in  which  the  meaning  is  conditioned  by  the  circumstances 
under  which  they  were  found,  and  those  whose  meaning  is  purely 
accidental.  The  first  class  will  include  those  of  the  archaic  period,  and 
others,  the  object  of  which  is  clearly  votive  whether  the  meaning  is 
mythological  or  not ; the  second,  the  bulk  of  the  later  terra-cottas,  such 
as  those  of  Tanagra,  which  are  chiefly  found  in  tombs,  but  may  be 
found  under  other  circumstances.  In  the  former  case,  the  strict 
adherence  to  one  type,  as  in  the  archaic  seated  goddesses,  implies  their 
religious  associations ; in  the  latter,  the  illimitable  variety  of  subject, 
pose,  and  conception  seems  to  indicate  that  no  special  meaning  was 
intended  to  be  conveyed,  but  that  they  were  regarded  as  objects  of 
beauty  for  tlie  living,  and,  if  the  purchaser  so  chose,  appropriate 
offerings  to  the  immortals  or  to  the  dead. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  that  Greek  terra-cottas  do  not  exhibit, 
like  the  other  branches  of  ancient  art,  a continuous  and  gradual 
development  from  archaism  to  perfection,  followed  by  a similar  decad- 
ence, but  that  there  is  an  abrupt  break  in  the  fifth  century  during 
which  this  art  is  almost  unrepresented.  This  is  not  to  say  that  there 
is  no  ‘finest  period’  for  Greek  terra-cottas,  as  the  products  of  the  Tanagra 
tombs  show,  but  only  that  tliis  period  of  perfection  is  (apparently,  at 
any  rate)  widely  separated  from  the  archaic  period,  the  Tanagra  figures 
being  usually  dated  between  the  middle  of  the  fourth  and  the  middle 
of  the  third  century.  If  evidence  is  sought  on  this  point,  it  is  yielded 
by  the  results  of  the  excavations  at  Tanagra,  which  showed  that  in  the 
tombs  of  the  sixth  century  containing  archaic  painted  vases,  archaic 
statuettes  were  not  uncommon  ; in  those  of  the  fifth  only  painted  vases 
were  found,  while  the  tombs  which  contained  such  thousands  of  terra- 
cotta figures  only  yielded  plain  black-glazed  pottery  of  a kind  that  did 
not  come  into  use  before  the  fourth  century. 

This  seems  to  point  to  the  probability  that  there  was  a fashion  in 
tomb-furniture,  at  least  at  Tanagra;  and  that  for  a time  here,  as  also  at 
Athens,  painted  vases  had  the  preference,  but  that,  when  that  art  died 
out,  the  terra-cottas  resumed  their  sway,  with  the  happiest  results.  Hut 
in  regard  to  many  sites,  such  as  Ilhodes,  it  is  probable  that  another 
influence  was  at  work,  and  this  was  the  hieratic  tendency  which  often 
manifests  itself  so  strongly  in  Greek  art.  That  is  to  say,  that  the 
terra-cottas  which  are  archaic  in  style  are  not  so  in  point  of  date,  but 

193 


G.  A.— 13 


GREEK  TERRA-COTTAS 


that  the  old  style  was  deliberately  adhered  to,  as  at  Athens  in  the  case 
of  the  prize  amphorae  (p.  173),  purely  on  religious  grounds.  The 
evidence  of  Rhodian  tombs  certainly  points  in  this  direction,  for  there 
terra-cottas  of  archaic  type  were  often  found  with  red-figured  vases 
of  a mucli  more  advanced  technicpie  and  style.  It  is  also  obvious 
tliat  this  principle  was  likely  to  be  still  stronger  in  the  case  of  votive 
offerings  in  tem})les. 

Terra-cotta  figures  of  what  we  may  call  fifth-century  style  are  thus 
exceedingly  rare  ; those  that  we  possess  are  chiefly  from  Athens,  or 
from  isolated  finds  in  Greece,  and  there  is  also  a series  of  votive  terra- 
cottas found  at  Larnaka  in  Cyprus,  of  which  some  fine  specimens  are 
in  the  British  Museum.^  A French  writer  of  authority  considers  that 
these  are  the  best  examples  we  possess  of  the  ‘ grand  Attic  style  ’ of 
the  fifth  century,  and  he  explains  this  sudden  and  unexpected  achieve- 
ment by  supposing  that  the  moulds  for  the  figures  were  imported 
direct  from  Athens. 

To  know,  therefore,  what  were  the  characteristics  of  the  best 
Greek  work  in  terra-cotta,  we  must  turn  our  attention  to  the  suc- 
ceeding period,  and  to  its  most  typical  products,  the  Tanagra 
statuettes.^  And  therein  we  are  at  once  confronted  with  a startling 
change.  The  seated  and  standing  feminine  types  are,  it  is  true,  still  in 
a majority,  but  it  is  their  meaning  that  has  changed.  In  a word,  they 
are  no  longer  mythological,  but  genre  figures  ; no  longer  suggestive  of 
religious  beliefs,  but  only  of  secular  daily  life.  The  revolution,  how- 
ever, or  rather  the  evolution,  is  due  more  to  artistic  development  than 
to  the  alterations  in  religious  ideas.  Art-types  became  secularised, 
and  the  originally  religious  conceptions  were  adopted  almost  uncon- 
sciously for  subjects  drawn  from  daily  life,  or  even  without  any  special 
significance. 

Hence  we  find  an  almost  unlimited  variety  of  the  feminine  standing 
types,  including  women  or  girls  in  every  conceivable  pose  or  attitude. 
In  most  cases  the  arms  are  more  or  less  concealed  by  the  mantle  which 
is  drawn  closely  across  the  figure,  even  covering  the  hands ; but  many 
hold  a fan,  mirror,  wreath,  or  theatrical  mask  in  one  hand,  while  with 
the  other  they  gather  together  the  folds  of  their  draperies.  Some, 
again,  lean  on  a column,  others  play  with  a bird.  The  long  tunic 
or  chiton,  and  the  mantle  or  kimation,  which  all  without  exception 
wear,  formed  the  typical  dress  of  the  Greek  matron  and  girl ; and  to 
tills  was  added  for  outdoor  wear  a large  shady  hat.  This,  in  the  fifth 

^ See  Plate  lxxxvii.  ^ Plate  lxxxiv.  for  some  typical  specimens. 

194 


TANAGRA  STATUETTES 


century,  was  only  worn  by  women  wlieii  travelling,  but  later  became 
part  of  their  every-day  costume.  It  is  one  of  the  details  which  marks 
the  date  of  these  figures,  and  another  is  the  bin,  a luxury  introduced 
from  the  East  in  the  fourth  century.  The  seated  types  follow  much 
on  the  same  lines,  but  are  more  rare;  the  chair  or  throne  of  the  archaic 
period  is  replaced  by  a rocky  base,  which  at  once  added  picturescjueness 
to  the  composition  and  an  appearance  of  stability  and  freedom  to  the 
figure. 

‘Just  as  the  paintings  on  the  Attic  vases  of  the  fifth  century  reflect 
the  aims  and  achievements  of  the  contemporary  sculptors  and  monu- 
mental painters,’  so  do  the  charming  little  terra-cotta  figures  from 
Tanagra  ‘ help  us  to  realise  more  distinctly  and  vividly  the  world  of 
forms  which  ministered  to  the  taste  of  the  epoch  of  Praxiteles.  The 
marvellous  grace  and  beauty  of  the  attitude,  motion,  and  form,  the 
inexhaustible  variety  attained  with  an  apparently  small  number  of 
models,  and  the  brilliancy  of  colouring  on  the  best-preserved  specimens, 
have  spread  their  fame  world- wide.  . . . Now  we  know  just  how 
Greek  polychrome  sculpture  looked,  at  least  on  a small  scale,  and  can 
delight  in  the  lively,  brilliant,  yet  harmonious  colouring  of  these 
women  and  girls,  with  their  rich  yet  graceful  drapery,  their  palm-leaf 
fans  and  their  broad-brimmed  hats.  . . . Almost  all  the  female  figures, 
whether  they  represent  goddesses  or  mortals,  have  a similar  type  of 
face,  which  the  artists  seemed  to  have  tried  again  and  again  to  improve 
till  they  attained  a certain  standard  of  perfection.’^ 

Altogether  homogeneous  in  style  and  character,  it  is  uncertain 
whether  these  Tanagra  figures  belong  to  a short  and  clearly  defined 
period  or  to  a longer  period  of  little  change  and  development.  But 
many  details  tend  to  show  that  they  must  be  placed  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  Hellenistic  age,  between  350  and  200  b.c.,  which  is  that 
covered  by  the  age  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  his  successors.  The 
conceptions  certainly  reflect  the  characteristics  of  this  age  rather  than 
the  Praxitelean  and  other  schools  of  sculpture  in  the  fourth  century, 
as  may  be  seen,  for  instance,  in  the  treatment  of  the  god  Eros.  The 
vital  difference  between  the  Tanagra  figures  and  the  Greek  sculpture  of 
the  best  period  is  that  the  former  aim  chiefly  at  grace  of  movement, 
and  exhibit  a tendency  to  taper  upwards  from  an  enlarged  base,  the 
effect  of  which,  though  full  of  grace  and  elegance,  lacks  the  beauties 
of  the  better-proportioned  statues. 

It  is,  however,  more  likely  that  the  true  source  of  their  inspiration 


• Kekule  in  Baedeker’s  Greece,  second  edition,  p.  xcvii. 


195 


GREEK  TERRA-COTTAS 

is  to  be  sought  in  painting.  There  was  an  important  school  of  this 
art  in  Boeotia  in  the  fourth  century  (see  above,  p.  156),  which  largely 
devoted  itself  to  the  production  of  similar  subjects  ; and  we  may 
conversely  observe  the  influence  of  the  terra-cottas  in  the  paintings 
of  Pompeii,  which  reflect  a later  stage  of  pictorial  art.  In  tlie  terra- 
cottas of  Myrina  in  Asia  Minor,  which  in  artistic  merit  stand  next  to 
those  of  Tanagra,  Hellenistic  characteristics  are  even  more  strongly 
marked,  and  the  flgures  are  altogether  freer  from  ancient  traditions ; 
they  are  certainly  later  as  a whole,  and  hardly  earlier  than  the  second 
century  b.c. 

At  Myrina  we  find  a much  greater  variety  of  subjects  than  at 
Tanagra,  especially  figures  of  Aphrodite  and  Eros,  Dionysos,  Victory, 
and  other  divinities  ; there  is  also  a great  preponderance  of  comic  and 
grotesque  subjects ; yet  withal  much  direct  borrowing  from  Tanagra. 
The  Tanagra  types  are,  in  fact,  found  repeated,  with  varying  success 
from  an  artistic  point  of  view,  all  over  the  ancient  world : in  Asia 
Minor,  in  Cyj)rus,  North  Africa,  and  Southern  Italy,  a large  proportion 
of  the  terra-cotta  figures  found  on  each  site  are  mere  repetitions  of 
the  favourite  poses  and  motives.^ 

The  popularity  of  this  branch  of  art  at  all  periods  is  amply  demon- 
strated by  the  wide  distribution  not  only  of  Tanagra  but  of  archaic 
and  other  types ; the  favourite  archaic  motive  of  the  seated  goddess 
is  found  repeated  with  absolute  exactness  iii  places  so  far  apart  as 
Syria,  Gyrene,  Rhodes,  and  Sardinia,  and  the  same  applies  to  some 
of  the  grotesque  types,  such  as  the  squatting  Satyr  or  Ptah-Socharis. 
Among  the  later  terra-cottas  the  most  universal,  next  to  the  peculiarly 
Tanagran  types,  are  Eros  and  his  feminine  counterpart,  who  is  pro- 
bably not  Psyche,  as  formerly  supposed,  but  the  goddess  Victory ; 
the  conception  of  Psyche  belongs  to  a later  period  of  art  and 
literature.  Eros  is  almost  the  one  deity  who  universally  caught  the 
popular  taste  in  the  Hellenistic  Age,  and  is  represented  standing,  flying, 
or  riding  on  animals  of  all  kinds.  At  Eretria  in  Euboea,  whence  come 
some  of  the  best  examples,  we  even  meet  with  the  counterparts  of 
the  playful  little  Amoretti  of  the  Pompeian  wall-paintings.  Ordinary 
boy-types  without  wings  are  sometimes  substituted  for  Eros,  without 
further  alteration  of  the  motives. 

Generally  speaking,  in  all  fabrics  of  the  Hellenistic  period  the 
subjects  are  of  the  same  character,  but  local  influences  often  produce 
interesting  developments:  as  in  Cyprus,  where  there  was  a strong 

1 Examples  of  these  later  terra-cottas  are  given  on  Plates  lxxxv.  , lxxxvi. 

196 


PLATE  LXXXVI 


PLATE  LXXXVII 


S'I'ATUKTTES  FROM  CYPRUS  AND  SICIIA' 
1,  3,  h FROM  SICIIA';  .>.  FROM  CYPRUS 

(HKMIISH  Ml’SKUM) 


LATER  TERRA-COTTAS 


tendency  to  adhere  to  the  ancient  religious  types ; or  in  Sicily,  where 
taste  ran  in  the  direction  of  winged  or  half-draped  figures,  covered 
with  a bright-coloured  enamel  glaze ; or  again  at  Naukratis  in  the 
Egyptian  Delta,  where  the  influence  of  Egyptian  mythology  in  its 
later  developments  is  very  strongly  marked.  These  terra-cottas  belong 
chiefly  to  the  Ptolemaic  period  (about  200-50  b.c.),  and  illustrate  the 
growing  influence  of  such  cults  as  that  of  Isis  and  Harpocrates,  deities 
who  were  subsequently  much  popularised  by  the  Romans,  or  the 
uncouth  god  Pes.  Tlie  terra-cottas  of  Tarentum  are  the  most  char- 
acteristic of  those  from  Italian  sites;  they  were  chiefly  found  on  the 
sites  of  shrines  of  Dionysos  and  Persephone,  the  typical  underworld 
deities,  who  Avere  much  worshipped  there.  The  favourite  subject  is 
that  of  the  ‘ funeral  banquet,’  representing  the  heroified  dead,  or  even 
the  god  Dionysos  himself,  reclining  at  a couch  cup  in  hand  and 
accompanied  by  a veiled  woman,  who  is  also  sometimes  transformed 
into  Persephone. 

Before  we  pass  from  this  subject,  it  may  be  instructive  to  note  with 
some  additional  detail  the  characteristics  of  the  terra-cotta  figures 
found  in  the  various  parts  of  the  Greek  world.  It  is  the  more 
essential  to  say  something  on  this  head,  because  the  differences  are 
in  many  cases  strongly  marked.  The  terra-cottas  of  Cyprus,  of  Rhodes, 
of  Asia  ]Minor,  of  Tanagra,  of  Egypt,  of  North  Africa,  and  of  Sicily 
all  exhibit  peculiar  features,  and  in  some  regions,  such  as  Rhodes 
and  Cyprus,  they  enjoyed  more  popularity  in  the  archaic  period  ; in 
others,  such  as  IMyrina  in  Asia  IMinor,  and  the  Cyrenaica,  the  majority 
are  of  late  date.  Roughly  speaking,  a geographical  order  from  East 
to  West  corresponds  more  or  less  with  a chronological  arrangement. 

We  begin  then  with  Cyprus,  of  which  we  have  already  seen  some- 
thing in  our  account  of  the  primitive  types.  In  the  second  period 
of  Cypriote  art,  usually  called  the  Graeco-Phoenician  (800-400  b.c.), 
many  of  the  primitive  types  still  find  a place,  and  the  figures  generally 
are  very  rude  both  in  style  and  technique.  They  are  mostly  modelled 
by  hand,  not  moulded,  and  the  tombs  contain  large  numbers  of 
horsemen,  worshippers  with  offerings,  of  the  ‘ columnar  ’ type,  or 
figures  of  animals,  fashioned  in  the  roughest  possible  manner.  On  the 
sites  of  sanctuaries,  as  at  Achna,^  the  usual  type  is  that  of  a goddess 
with  an  attribute,  such  as  a flower  or  bird,  who  may  be  identified 
according  to  circumstances  as  Aphrodite,  Artemis,  or  Persephone. 
The  incoming  of  Greek  influences  in  the  fiftii  century  wrought  a 

^ Examples  may  be  seen  in  the  Terra-cotta  Room  of  tlie  British  Museum,  cases  1-2. 

197 


GREEK  TERR  A- COTTAS 


great  change,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  case  of  the  Larnaka  terra- 
cottas (p.  194),  and  henceforward  the  local  quasi-Oriental  types  entirely 
disappear,  their  place  being  taken  by  imported  figures  of  the  kind 
usually  associated  with  Asia  Minor.  But  in  many  cases  the  develop- 
ment from  the  primitive  Cypriote  types  may  be  clearly  traced. 

In  the  island  of  Rhodes  large  numbers  of  statuettes  have  been 
found  at  Kameiros,  ranging  in  style  from  the  most  primitive  columnar 
or  board-like  figures  down  to  comparative  freedom.  But  all  are  more 
or  less  archaic,  and  it  would  seem  that  hieratic  influences  were  very 
strong  in  Rhodes,  unnaturally  retarding  the  progress  of  art  in  the 
terra-cottas.  The  seated  and  standing  female  types  largely  prevail, 
but  riding  or  reclining  male  figures,  grotesques,  and  toys  of  all  kinds 
are  common.  An  interesting  series  of  funeral  masks  (see  p.  188), 
some  of  considerable  size,  presents  the  same  features  of  hieratic 
retardation,  though  some  are  comparatively  free.  Kameiros  was 
destroyed  in  408  i?.c.,  and  therefore  the  most  developed  figures 
probably  belong  to  the  end  of  the  fifth  century. 

In  Asia  Minor  a large  number  of  terra-cottas,  mostly  of  developed 
style,  were  found  by  Sir  Charles  Newton  at  Knidos  and  Halikar- 
nassos  ; at  the  former  in  the  precinct  of  Demeter  and  Persephone, 
where  they  were  packed  in  layers  in  a subterranean  chamber,  ‘assorted 
like  articles  in  a shop.’  They  are  mostly  small  and  of  no  great 
merit,  the  types  including  Demeter  and  Persephone  and  other  deities. 
Further  north,  by  far  the  most  important  site  is  Myrina  in  Aeolis, 
where  MM.  Pettier  and  Reinach  excavated  many  fine  examples  in 
1880-84 ; these  are  now  in  the  I^ouvre.  The  dates  of  the  tombs 
range  from  300  n.c.  to  the  first  century  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and 
the  terra-cottas  are  all  of  advanced  type,  much  influenced  by  Tanagra, 
but  with  peculiarities  of  their  own  both  in  style  and  subject.  The 
favourite  type  is  a flying  figure,  Eros  or  Victory,^  and  Aphrodite  and 
Dionysiac  subjects  are  also  common,  as  well  as  actors,  grotesques, 
and  caricatures.  They  are  also  much  influenced  by  Hellenistic  art, 
especially  by  the  Asiatic  schools  of  sculpture,  and  some  reproduce 
more  or  less  freely  well-known  works  of  art.  Others  again  preserve 
the  ancient  hieratic  types  in  a more  or  less  altered  form. 

In  Greece  Proper  the  chief  centre  is  of  course  Tanagra,  the  pro- 
ducts of  which  have  already  been  discussed.  At  Athens  there  was 
a decided  preference  for  painted  vases  over  terra-cotta  figures,  and  the 
latter  are  comparatively  rare,  whereas  at  Tanagra  the  painted  vases 


198 


^ See  Plate  lixxwr. 


TYPICAL  FABRICS 


are  seldom  found.  The  ordinary  archaic  types,  seated  or  standing 
figures,  toys  and  dolls  are  more  often  found  than  those  of  developed 
style,  and  about  five  thousand  occurred  among  the  votive  objects 
excavated  on  the  Acropolis.  Another  site  which  has  achieved  a 
reputation  (not  always  a satisfactory  one)  in  recent  years  is  Eretria  in 
Euboea,  wliere  the  terra-cottas  largely  resemble  those  of  Myrina,  with 
a preference  for  ornate  and  lively  compositions,  such  as  dancing  girls 
and  flying  Cupids.  They  are  entirely  Hellenistic  in  spirit,  and  seem 
to  have  proved  a great  attraction  for  the  modern  forger  (see  below). 

At  Naukratis  in  Egypt  terra-cottas  of  a coarse  brick-like  clay  have 
been  found  in  large  numbers,  but  mostly  of  a late  date,  the  Ptolemaic 
period.  Similar  finds  have  been  made  in  the  Fayiim.  As  already 
noted,  Egyptian  influence  is  strongly  manifested,  both  in  style  and 
subject,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  majority  are  of  local  fabric, 
with  occasional  importations  from  Tanagra  or  elsewhere,  easy  to 
distinguish. 

The  district  known  as  the  Cyrenaica,  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa, 
has  supplied  many  terra-cottas  to  the  British  Museum  and  the  Louvre, 
some  of  archaic  style,  others  obviously  hieratic  or  archaistic,  but  the 
majority  of  free  style  and  late  date.  The  influence  of  Tanagra  seems 
to  have  been  stronger  here  than  almost  anywhere,  but  the  difference 
of  style  is  very  marked.  The  colouring  is  gaudy  and  crude,  the 
workmanship  rough  and  careless,  and  they  are  generally  of  little 
merit  or  interest.  The  favourite  subjects  are  standing  girls  of 
the  well-known  Tanagra  types,  and  Eros  or  a boy  riding  on  some 
animal.^ 

AVe  need  only  further  mention  Sicily,  where  terra-cottas  have  been 
found  on  most  sites,  especially  those  of  Centuripae,  Gela,  and  Selinus.'^ 
Professor  Kekule  points  out  ^ that  Sicilian  terra-cottas  show  a marked 
individuality,  especially  in  later  times,  and  that  their  development, 
though  passing  through  the  usual  stages  of  Greek  art,  is  always  inde- 
pendent and  peculiar.  Those  from  Gela  and  Selinus  are  of  the  archaic 
period,  and  at  the  latter  place  a votive  series  has  recently  been  found 
representing  almost  every  known  type,  and  very  richly  coloured.  At 
Centorbi  (Centuripae),  on  the  other  hand,  the  Hellenistic  style  is 
best  represented.  The  influence  of  Tanagra  and  Myrina  is  nowhere 
apparent,  but  there  is  some  parallelism  in  subjects  and  other  details 
w'ith  the  Cyrenaica. 

1 See  Plate  Lxxxvr.  2 fQj.  specimens  Plate  i.xxxvn. 

^ See  his  Terracotten  von  Sicilien  (1884),  which  contains  a full  discussion  of  the  subject. 

101) 


GREEK  TERRA-COTTAS 


It  would  not,  perhaps,  be  right  to  close  the  subject  of  Greek 
terra-cottas  without  making  at  least  a passing  allusion  to  a somewhat 
delicate  question,  namely,  that  of  forgeries.  There  is  perhaps  no 
branch  of  Greek  art  in  which  there  is  so  much  room  for  doubts  as 
to  genuineness,  as  in  the  terra-cotta  figures.  And  the  amateur  collector 
is  placed  at  a special  disadvantage  in  this  matter,  because  it  is  one  in 
which  even  the  specialist’s  judgment  may  be  at  fault,  or  at  least  con- 
tradicted by  that  of  an  equally  competent  authority.  The  ingenuity 
of  the  modern  fabricator  of  terra-cottas  has  reached  such  a height  that 
it  is  possible  to  imitate  with  success  colouring,  appearance  and  texture 
of  surface,  and  breakages.  Consequently  there  are  many  pieces,  not 
only  in  private  but  even  in  public  collections,  which  are  as  stoutly 
condemned  by  some  of  the  most  experienced  archaeologists  as  they 
are  upheld  by  others. 

The  fact  is  that  so  long  as  the  modern  craftsman  is  content  to  be 
a mere  copyist,  and  reproduce  with  absolute  faithfulness  the  genuine 
models  before  him,  he  can  do  so  practically  with  complete  success. 
Fortunately  or  unfortunately,  however,  ‘vaulting  ambition  which 
o’erleaps  itself,’  impels  him  to  improve  upon  his  model,  or  to  combine 
details  from  different  sources  in  an  impossible  manner,  and  it  is  usually 
in  this  way  that  he  just  manages  to  overreach  himself.  Obviously 
these  small  points  are  virtually  certain  to  escape  the  notice  of  the 
average  collector,  being  such  as  could  only  be  detected  by  an  expert 
of  lifelong  acquaintance  with  the  art,  and  thus  within  certain  limits 
his  market  is  assured. 

It  may,  however,  be  some  consolation  to  the  amateur  to  realise 
that  a forgery  is  not  necessarily  without  merit.  That  is  to  say,  as 
long  as  it  claims  to  be  nothing  more  than  a modern  imitation  of 
Greek  work,  it  may  still  be  a work  of  art — and  we  have  seen  more 
than  one  forged  terra-cotta  which  really  deserved  to  be  called  a thing 
of  beauty — even  though  it  may  offend  against  all  the  canons  of  Greek 
art.  As,  however,  this  is  not  the  forger’s  only  object  in  producing 
his  imitations,  and  the  aim  of  the  collector  is  usually  to  possess  genuine 
antiques,  he  cannot  be  said  to  justify  his  existence. 

Up  to  the  year  1875  forgeries  in  terra-cotta  were  practically 
unknown,  and  in  fact  the  majority  of  statuettes  then  in  existence 
had  come  from  well  - attested  sources,  such  as  the  archaeological 
explorations  of  Sir  Charles  Newton  in  Asia  JNIinor,  or  of  jNIessrs. 
Salzmann  and  Ililiotti  in  Rhodes.  It  was  the  extraordinary  dis- 
coveries of  the  years  1874-75  at  Tanagra  which  first  led  to  their 
200 


FORGERIES 


appearance  in  the  market,  a not  unnatural  result  of  the  general 
furore  which  these  charming  novelties  had  caused  among  amateur 
collectors  and  people  of  taste.  Many  of  the  imitations  were  good 
enough  to  deceive  tlie  very  elect — and  so  long  as  the  forger  adhered  to 
the  ordinary  types  his  task  was  not  so  difficult — but,  as  has  already 
been  said,  ambition  carried  him  too  far. 

A few  years  afterwards  there  appeared  in  the  markets  a number  of 
groups  of  figures,  purporting  to  have  come  from  Asia  Minor,  which 
was  then  comparatively  unexplored.  They  were,  as  a learned  German 
authority  has  said,  ‘ conceived  in  the  antique  spirit,  and  excellent 
imitations  of  teclmique.’  To  a great  extent  they  were  copied  from 
single  Tanagra  figures,  and  combined,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
‘ artistically  they  were  extraordinarily  successful,  a phenomenal  occur- 
rence in  the  history  of  forgeries  ’ ; they  were  ‘ sold  in  crowds  and  at 
the  highest  prices,’  and  the  forgers  ‘ celebrated  a veritable  orgy  ’ with 
them.  • Even  Museum  authorities  Avere  deceived,  and  it  Avas  not  until 
scientific  excavations  had  been  set  on  foot  on  the  site  of  My  rina  that 
the  true  character  of  Asia  JNIinor  terra-cottas  began  to  be  known.  In 
spite  of  the  exposure  of  these  groups  by  a noted  French  scholar  Avho 
took  part  in  those  excavations,  they  may  still  be  met  Avith  here  and 
tliere  in  priA^ate  collections,  accepted  as  antique,  and,  pleasing  as  many 
of  them  are,  it  is  not  ahvays  easy  to  give  good  reasons  for  their 
condemnation. 

More  recently,  discoA^eries  at  Eretria  in  Euboea  gaAX  a neAv  impetus 
to  the  industry.  To  quote  again  from  the  same  source,  these  ‘avoided 
all  the  pitfalls  into  Avhich  the  group-makers  had  fallen,  and  adhered 
more  closely  to  the  antique.’  Imitations  of  the  archaic  noAv  became 
popular,  and  these  Avere  often  exceedingly  clever  ; figures  Avere  copied 
from  the  Aegina  pediments  or  from  red-figured  Abases,  and  Avere  calcu- 
lated to  appeal  to  the  groAving  familiarity  of  the  public  Avith  archaic 
art.  A collection  recently  in  the  market  contained  a terra-cotta  group 
in  which  one  of  the  figures  A\^as  directly  copied  from  a red-figured  vase ; 
but  the  forger  betrayed  himself  by  his  misunderstanding  of  certain 
details  in  the  original. 

Professor  FurtAvaengler,  Avhose  acquaintance  Avith  Avorks  of  Greek 
art  is  surpassed  by  none,  has  laid  doAvn  certain  canons  of  judgment 
Avhich,  if  not  infallible,  may  yet  serve  as  a general  guide  to  the  student 
and  collector.  Imitations  of  Tanagra  figures  are,  he  says,  ahvays 
betrayed  by  their  style,  either  through  deviations  from  antique  ideas, 
or  from  carelessness  and  exaggeration.  The  technique  is  so  Avell 

201 


GREEK  TERRA-COTTAS 


imitated  that  it  presents  more  difficulties,  but  experience  should  always 
be  able  to  detect  the  artibcial  encrustation  with  which  they  are  usually 
supplied.  An  unfailing  test  of  genuineness  is  where  fibres  appear  in 
the  encrustation,  for  these  cannot  be  imitated.  Another  difficult 
matter,  on  which  the  Professor’s  conclusions  have  been  called  in 
(question,  is  tliat  of  breakages.  He  maintains  that  tliese  in  all  forgeries 
follow  a fixed  principle,  but  fail  in  that  they  are  made  in  the  wrong 
places,  avoiding  the  important  parts  of  the  figure  such  as  the  face, 
which  would  seem  to  be  the  most  exposed  to  damage.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  remarkable  that  although  this  is  undoubtedly  true  in  regard 
to  sculpture,  it  is  hardly  the  case  with  smaller  figures,  and  hundreds  of 
instances  might  be  collected  of  genuine  statuettes  in  which  the  heads 
are  perfect  but  other  parts  injured.  As  with  other  branches  of  art,  the 
safest  guide  is  often  the  trained  eye  alone  ; and  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  in  the  progressive  state  of  classical  archaeology  mistakes 
are  often  due  to  a want  of  knowledge  which  subsequent  enlightenment 
is  able  to  correct. 


202 


CHAPTER  XI 


GREEK  GEAl-ENGRAVING 


Oriental  use  of  precious  stones — Signets  and  cylinders — Cretan  and  Mycenaean 
gem-engraving — Island-stones — Scarabs  and  Ionian  gems — Gem-engraving  of  the 
archaic  and  finest  periods — Scaraboids — Hellenistic  intaglios — Artists’  signatures 
— Cameos  and  vases — Gem-enijraving  in  Etruria — Technical  details — Modern 
imitations  and  forgeries. 

The  history  of  precious  stones  as  used  by  mankind  goes  back 
to  a very  remote  antiquity,  especially  in  the  records  of  Oriental 
nations  such  as  the  Hebrews.  From  earliest  times  their  use 
was  twofold,  either  as  personal  or  official  ornaments,  or  for  employment 
as  signets  engraved  with  a name  or  device  for  the  sealing  of  docu- 
ments. And  further,  the  signet-ring  in  which  the  stone  was  fixed 
became  at  a very  early  period  a symbol  of  power  and  authority. 
Many  passages  might  be  quoted  from  the  Old  Testament  in  support 
of  these  different  uses,  such  as  the  ring  with  which  Pharaoh  invested 
Joseph,^  or  the  breast-plate  of  the  High  Priest  with  its  ornamentation 
of  twelve  precious  stones. 

Among  Oriental  nations  the  signet  took  various  forms,  of  which 
the  Egyptian  scarab  and  the  Babylonian  cylinder  are  most  familiar ; 
the  former  was  set  in  a ring  of  gold,  and  Egyptian  rings  wholly  of 
gold,  with  engraved  hieroglyphics  on  the  bezel,  are  not  uncommon, 
but  the  Assyrian  people  do  not  seem  to  have  made  much  use  of  the 
finger-ring.  The  scarab,  it  is  perhaps  hardly  necessary  to  say,  is  so 
called  from  its  being  carved  at  the  back  in  the  form  of  the  sacred 
scarabaeus  beetle,  the  symbol  of  the  Sun-God  lla,  the  Fertiliser. 
The  hieroglyphic  design,  which  forms  the  signature  of  the  Egyptian 
King,  is  cut  on  the  flat  under-side.  It  is  supposed  that  the  scarab 
came  into  general  use  in  Egypt  about  the  Eleventh  Dynasty,  or  about 
2,500  n.c.  In  later  times  this  became  a favourite  form  for  gems  with 

Cj 


^ Gen.  xli,  42. 


203 


GREEK  GEM-ENGRAVING 


the  Phoenicians,  the  Greeks,  and  tiie  Etruscans ; the  Greeks,  indeed, 
did  not  greatly  favour  the  scarab  shape,  and  the  plain  oval  gems 
which  take  its  place  are  known  as  scaraboids.  These  are  not,  however, 
to  be  regarded  as  imitations  or  debased  forms  of  the  scarab.  Strictly 
speaking,  these  scarabs  hardly  come  under  the  heading  of  precious 
stones,  inasmuch  as  they  are  often  made  of  glazed  clay  or  soft  steatite. 
Although  they  usually  serve  as  an  admirable  guide  to  dating  other 
objects,  and  form  our  most  important  source  of  evidence  for  the 
chronology  of  early  Greek  remains,  some  caution  has  to  be  exercised 
in  this  respect,  as  there  was  often  a tendency  to  produce  imitations 
of  them  in  later  times.  Thus  in  the  seventh-  and  sixth-century  tombs 
of  Amathus  in  Cyprus  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  scarabs  with  the 
cartouche  of  Thothmes  iii.,  who  ruled  over  Egypt  in  the  Eighteenth 
Dynasty,  about  1500  b.c. 

The  cylinders  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  were  usually  cut  out  of 
hard  stones,  such  as  chalcedony,  rock-crystal,  haematite,  or  carnelian. 
They  are  drilled  with  holes  longitudinally  to  receive  a cord  for  sus- 
pending them  round  the  neck  or  wrist,  and  are  engraved  with  names 
in  cuneiform  characters  and  various  designs,  such  as  a king  slaying  a 
lion,  worshippers  approaching  a god,  or  two  animals  guarding  a sacred 
tree.  This  latter  design  is  typically  Assyrian,  but  appears  independ- 
ently at  a very  early  period  in  Greece,  though  always  in  a conven- 
tionalised form,  as  we  see  it,  for  instance,  in  the  Lion  Gate  at  Mycenae 
(see  p.  18).  The  tree  takes  the  form  of  a column  or  an  altar  in  many 
cases,  as  may  be  seen  in  some  of  the  gems  of  the  Mycenaean  period. 
It  is  a type  that  has  practically  never  died  out  in  the  history  of  art, 
although  for  many  centuries  it  has  had  no  meaning  attached  to  it.  It 
survives  in  Oriental  textile  work,  and  through  Byzantine  channels  it 
even  passed  into  the  Romanesque  art  of  Western  Europe,  and 
examples  may  be  seen  in  the  tympana  of  Norman  doorways  in  our 
English  parish  churches. 

The  interest  of  Babylonian  cylinders  to  the  student  of  Greek  art 
lies  in  the  fact  that  they  are  not  infrequently  found  in  tombs  of  the 
INIycenaean  age,  especially  in  Cyprus,  for  which  country  a special  class 
in  haematite  seems  to  have  been  manufactured ; many,  however,  are  of 
a debased  character,  and  seem  to  be  the  work  of  the  Phoenicians. 
They  were  used  for  sealing  the  cuneiform  documents  of  the  period  by 
rolling  them  over  the  soft  clay. 

Passing  allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  gem-engraving  of 
the  iMycenaean  epoch,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  must  now  be  regarded 
204 


ORIENTAL  USE  OF  GEMS 


as  consisting  really  of  two  separate  periods,  representing  respectively 
the  Cretan  and  the  Mycenaean  supremacy.  Dr.  Arthur  Evans’s  dis- 
coveries in  Crete  during  the  past  ten  years  have  made  known  to  us 
large  numbers  of  engraved  stones  which  represent  the  earliest  speci- 
mens found  on  Greek  soil,  dating  as  far  back  as  the  Twelfth  Dynasty, 
or  2300  B.c.  They  are  of  varied  form  and  material,  usually  steatite, 
and  are  cut  by  hand  ; many  take  the  shape  of  pyramidal  stones  with  a 
design  on  each  side.  Those  with  linear  characters  appear  to  be  earlier 
in  date  than  those  with  pictographic  symbols  ; but  there  is  no  doubt 


Fig.  17.  Design  on  BIycenaean  Gold  Ring  (Enlarged). 


that  in  both  we  have — if  we  could  but  interpret  them — the  signs  by 
means  of  which  the  Cretans  of  four  thousand  years  ago  expressed  their 
language  in  writing.  The  ‘ pietographs  ’ are  of  rude  and  primitive 
design,  representing  men,  animals,  vases,  ornaments,  and  symbols  of 
various  kinds.  Dr.  Evans’s  researelies  in  the  palace  of  JNIinos  at 
Knossos  have  yielded  most  interesting  examples  of  their  different 
uses  at  that  time,  for  sealing  documents  in  the  Cretan  script,  or  jars 
full  of  various  commodities. 

At  Mycenae  massive  gold  signet-rings  were  found,  with  broad 
bezels  engraved  with  various  subjects,  of  which  the  best  known 

205 


GREEK  GEM-ENGRAVING 


(Fig.  17)  represents  three  ladies  in  a very  remarkable  and — to  our 
notions — un-Greek  costume,  with  skirts  which  are  not  only  elaborately 
Hounced,  but  to  all  appearance  divided  ! ^ Such  a remarkably  modern 
fashion  now,  however,  causes  the  less  surprise,  since  the  discovery  of 
the  Cretan  frescoes,  with  their  extremely  modern  fashion-plate  portrayal 
of  the  ladies  of  the  period,  to  say  nothing  of  the  terra-cotta  figures  of 
Knossos  and  Petsofa.^ 

Mycenaean  gems,  like  other  branches  of  art,  differ  entirely  in  spirit 
from  Oriental.  In  place  of  symbolism  and  convention  we  find  fresh- 
ness, originality,  and  independence  of  thought.  But — as  was  the  case 

with  Greek  art  of  the  succeeding  age — with  this  native  individuality 
was  combined  a teclmical  knowledge  entirely  dependent  on  Oriental 
influence.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  separate  the  Greek  from  the  non- 
Greek  element  in  Mycenaean  art,  but  as  a general  rule  it  may  be  said 
that  the  former  prevails  in  the  later  work,  the  earlier  exhibiting  such 
un-Greek  features  as  a preference  for  the  lion.  Sphinx,  Gryphon,  and 
palm-tree,  and  the  peculiar  costume  both  of  men  and  women,  the 
former  being  often  clad  only  in  a sort  of  loin-cloth.  The  non-Greek 
element  is  strong  in  Crete,  the  Greek  in  the  Peloponnese,  as  illustrated 
by  the  Vaphio  cups  and  the  finds  at  Mycenae. 

The  subjects  of  Mycenaean  gems  are  never  religious,  like  those 
of  Babylonia — unless  the  Cretan  stones  afford  exceptions — nor  have 
they  any  heraldic  signification,  like  modern  seals.  They  are  purely 
decorative,  and  even  though  deities  and  daemons  are  often  repre- 
sented, it  is  with  no  symbolical  or  supernatural  idea;  like  Homer’s 
gods,  they  are  purely  human.  The  daemons  again  are  usually 
monstrous  variations  of  one  form,  the  lion,  perhaps  with  the  intention 
of  representing  ‘mighty  hunters,’  like  Nimrod;  analogies  for  these 
figures  are  certainly  to  be  found  in  Babylonian  art.  The  majority 
of  the  gems,  however,  represent  animals  only,  mostly  lions,  oxen, 
goats,  and  deer ; birds  and  fishes  are  also  found,  and  a favourite 
subject  is  that  of  huntsmen  taming  or  capturing  wild  bulls,  as  we 
have  seen  them  on  the  Vaphio  cups  and  the  fresco  of  Tiryns.  The 
animals  are  frequently  posed  as  on  the  Lion  Gate,  in  heraldic  fashion, 
a pair  with  a column  or  sort  of  altar  between  them,  in  which  con- 
ception we  see  an  echo  of  the  ‘sacred  tree’  design  (p.  204).  Some- 
times they  are  placed  back  to  back,  or  with  heads  J'cgardcmt  \ single 


^ This  is  probably  an  illusion,  or  rather  ^ an  artistic  rendering  of  the  tendency  of  full-flounced 
skirts  to  fall  in  between  the  knees.’ — (Miss  Hutton  in  Classical  Review,  11)04,  p.  283). 

2 See  British  School  Annual,  ix.  pi.  8,  p.  75  ff. 

206 


M \(  K\.\1:A\  (;I,.MS  A\I»  "IShANK  S'lOXK.S 


FLATL  LXXXIX 


CkAKCO-l’llOICN  ICIAX  AND  IONIC  C.KMS 


MYCENAEAN  GEMS 

animals  usually  have  the  heads  or  limbs  much  contorted  in  order  to 
fill  the  space.^ 

The  finer  gems  are  worked  with  the  wheel,  being  in  hard  stone, 
such  as  carnelian,  chalcedony,  band-agate,  amethyst,  rock-crystal, 
haematite,  jasper,  or  other  unyielding  materials  ; these  ceased  to  be 
made  after  the  best  period  of  Mycenaean  art.  The  hand-cutting 
method,  with  the  drill,  is  used  for  ordinary  gems  throughout,  these 
being  cut  in  steatite  and  other  soft  stones.  The  usual  forms  are  the 
circular  or  lenticular,  and  the  glandular  (so-called  from  its  resemblance 
to  2iglans,  or  sling-pebble).  Mycenaean  gems  are  mostly  found  in  Crete 
and  the  Peloponnese,  but  they  have  been  found  as  far  apart  as 
Cyprus  and  Southern  Italy.  Except  those  of  early  Crete,  they  were 
not  used  as  seals,  but  only  as  amulets  or  for  personal  adornment. 
The  scarab,  scaraboid,  and  cylinder  forms  are  quite  foreign  to  the 
style,  although  in  material  and  technique  there  is  much  imitation 
of  Oriental  work.  INlany  specimens  find  early  analogies  or  prototypes 
in  those  of  Babylonia. 

Artistically  they  are  of  high  merit,  notably  one  of  green  basalt 
found  by  Dr.  Arthur  Evans  in  Laconia,  with  a bull  and  a sea-horse, 
and  another  of  haematite  in  the  British  Museum,  with  the  favourite 
subject  of  a man  taming  a bull.“  In  the  best  examples  the  artist 
has  attained  to  a naturalism  which  is  only  excelled  by  the  designs 
on  the  Vaphio  cups.  The  peculiar  strength  of  INlycenaean  art,  as 
a great  authority  has  pointed  out,  is  its  conception  of  free  movement ; 
there  is  no  copying  or  repetition,  but  all  is  original  and  individual. 
The  work  is,  however,  often  too  rapid  and,  so  to  speak,  enthusiastic, 
to  be  carefully  done.  The  artist  often  felt  himself  hampered  by  his 
inability  to  achieve  perspective  and  foreshortening,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  he  shows  remarkable  ingenuity  in  so  disposing  the  figures  as 
to  occupy  the  whole  of  the  available  surface,  in  a way  which  arouses 
wonder  rather  than  admiration.  This  horror  vacui  or  dread  of  leavincr 
a vacant  space  was  characteristic  of  Greek  artists  at  all  periods ; but 
it  was  left  for  the  vase-painters  and  coin-engravers  of  the  fifth  century 
to  overcome  the  objection  in  a truly  artistic  manner.  In  the 
Mycenaean  gems  it  only  produces  strange  attitudes  and  combinations 
of  planes  in  one  figure. 

The  period  of  Mycenaean  art  was  followed  by  one  which  from  the 
chief  characteristic  of  its  pottery  has  been  styled  the  Geometrical 

2 Ibid.,  No.  14. 

207 


^ Examples  are  given  on  Plate  lxxxviii. 


GREEK  GEM-ENGRAVING 


period.  This  principle  of  decoration  did  not  of  course  lend  itself  to 
gem-engraving,  and  as  a matter  of  fact  little  was  done  in  this  period, 
which  may  account  for  the  silence  of  Homer  on  this  point.  Where 
they  do  occur,  however,  the  subjects  are  mainly  animals  of  the  types 
found  on  the  vases,  as  in  the  finds  in  the  Dipylon  cemetery  at  Athens. 
Imitations  of  scarabs  in  faience  are  not  unknown,  and  there  is  a 
general  preference  for  soft  stones  like  steatite.  This  condition  of 
things  prevailed  down  to  the  end  of  the  eighth  century ; but  in 
the  seventh  a great  change  takes  place,  which  may  be  attributed 
to  the  rise  of  art  in  Ionia.  This  manifests  itself,  as  might  be  expected, 
in  a revival  of  ^lycenaean  art- traditions,  combined,  however,  with  the 
Oriental  ideas  which  at  this  time  were  maintaining  so  firm  a foothold 
all  over  Greece.  In  the  direction  of  gem-engraving  this  tendency  is 
exhibited  in  a long  series  of  engraved  stones  of  Mycenaean  form, 
though  widely  divergent  in  style,  which,  from  the  fact  that  they  have 
been  chiefly  found  in  the  Greek  islands,  are  known  as  Island-stones. 
They  are  principally  associated  with  the  island  of  JMelos,  though  not 
confined  to  the  Aegean  Sea. 


The  stone  employed  is  generally  a soft  steatite,  cut  with  the 
hand,  not  on  the  wheel,  in  a lenticular  or  glandular  form ; the 
execution  is  usually  inferior,  and  the  style  exhibits  none  of  the 
IMycenaean  naturalism,  but  all  the  characteristics  of  early  archaic 
Greek  art.  As  a whole,  this  class  may  be  profitably  compared  with 
the  earliest  Greek  coins.  A few  mythological  subjects  are  known, 
including  a very  interesting  specimen  in  the  British  Museum,  the 
contest  of  Herakles  with  a sea-deity  entitled  the  'AXtos  Tepojv,  or 
‘ Old  Man  of  the  Sea  ’ ; ^ the  combat  of  the  hero  with  the  Centaurs, 
a favourite  subject  in  early  art,  is  also  found.  But  the  majority 
have  animal  subjects,  a limited  number  of  types  in  conventional 
attitudes  occurring  repeatedly.  Winged  beast  and  sea-monsters  are 
especially  popular,  as  are  the  stag  and  lion,  and  the  types  may  be 
compared  with  those  seen  on  early  Ionic  painted  vases.  Imitation 
scarabs  of  this  period  are  widely  distributed,  and  have  been  found  at 
Naukratis  in  Egypt,  in  Sicily,  and  in  the  Polledrara  tomb  at  A^ulci. 


About  the  end  of  the  seventh  century,  a new  impulse  was  given 
to  gem-engraving,  partly  by  the  general  introduction  of  coinage  and 
of  writing,  which  in  different  ways  affected  the  fashion,  partly  by  the 
extensive  importation  of  Egyptian  scarabs  and  Phoenician  engraved 

^ Plate  Lxxxviii.,  No.  2.5. 


208 


EARLY  GREEK  GEMS 


gems.  Henceforth  they  were  used  constantly  both  as  seals  and  as 
personal  ornaments,  though  in  the  latter  capacity  tliey  were  long  in 
coming  into  fashion  in  Greece  proper.  But  the  wearing  of  rings 
must  have  been  general  among  the  luxurious  people  of  Western  Asia 
jMinor,  as  we  are  reminded  in  the  stories  which  Herodotus  tells  of 
the  rings  of  Gyges  and  Polykrates. 

The  form  of  the  new  gems  was  determined  by  the  scarab,  which 
was  largely  popularised  by  the  Phoenicians ; they  attempted  to  copy 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  but  usually  in  a blundering  fashion.  Tlie 
old  island-stones  entirely  disappear,  and  throughout  the  sixth  century 
the  scarab  is  the  only  popular  form  in  Greece,  with  designs 
cut  with  the  wheel  in  a hard  stone.  The  scaraboid,  occasionally 
used  by  Greeks  and  Phoenicians  alike,  is  rare  until  the  following 
century,  when  it  almost  entirely  ousts  the  scarab.  For  the  Egyptians 
the  scarab  had  a symbolical  meaning,  but  to  the  Greeks  it  was  only 
a meaningless  ornamental  form,  and  all  archaic  gems  show  the  free 
un-hieratic  character  of  Greek  religion.  While  the  Babylonian  gems 
and  cylinders  present  an  unending  series  of  worshippers  at  altars  or 
praying  to  the  gods,  there  is  in  the  Greek  gems,  as  in  the  Mycenaean, 
a perpetual  freshness  and  a ‘ Lebensfreude  ’ which  lent  themselves  to 
an  unrestricted  creativeness  and  freedom  of  conception.  The  individu- 
ality of  the  artist  also  manifests  itself  at  an  early  date,  and  we  have 
in  this  period  gems  signed  by  Syries,  and  by  Epimenes  of  Paros. 
The  practice  of  using  seals  receives  frequent  illustration,  and  Solon 
enacted  that  no  engraver  might  keep  an  impression  of  a gem  which 
he  had  sold.  On  one  stone  is  inscribed  ‘ I am  the  seal  of  Thersis ; 
do  not  open  me.’  ^ 

Recent  researches  tend  to  show  that,  as  in  the  preceding  century, 
Ionia  played  a large  part  in  the  development  of  this  art,  and  that 
most  of  the  archaic  gems  in  existence  are  of  Ionian  origin.  The  ring 
of  Polykrates  was  traditionally  said  to  be  the  work  of  the  early  artist 
Theodores  of  Samos  (see  p.  71),  and  to  have  been  an  emerald  set 
in  gold.  We  are  also  told  that  Theodoros  made  a statue  of  himself 
holding  a chariot  and  driver  so  minute  that  they  were  covered  with 
the  wings  of  a fly ; this  has  been  explained  as  a scarab  with  the 
subject  engraved  underneath,  but  the  explanation  seems  superfluous. 
Mnesarchos  of  Samos,  the  father  of  Pythagoras,  is  also  mentioned  as 
gem-engraver. 

But  the  lonians  as  a rule  favoured  metal  rings  with  engraved 


See  Arch.  ZeAtmig,  1883,  pi.  10. 


G.  A.— 14 


1 


209 


UREEK  GEM-ENGRAVING 


designs  ratlier  than  those  set  with  precious  stones.  For  this  idea  they 
were,  as  has  been  noted,  indebted  to  Egypt,  the  oval  bezel  representing 
the  Egyptian  cartouche  ; and  many  of  the  Ionic  rings  have  the  field 
divided  up  in  Egyptian  fashion  and  quasi-Egyptian  designs.  The 
majority,  however,  are  of  purely  Greek  type,  with  a single  field. 
Chariot-scenes  are  especially  popular,  and  in  many  instances  the 
designs  may  be  comf)iired  with  the  contemporary  vases  attributed  to 
an  Ionic  source.  All  these  gems  of  Ionic  style  have  been  found  in 
Italy,  but  it  is  uncertain  to  what  extent  they  were  made  in  Asia 
Minor  and  exported,  or  made  on  the  spot  by  the  lonians  who  had 
migrated — as  did  the  Phocaeans  in  544  b.c. — from  their  original  home 
to  Cervetri  and  other  places  in  Etruria.^  There  is,  however,  a class 
of  engraved  gems,  differing  from  the  engraved  rings,  which  were 
certainly  exported  from  Ionia  to  Italy.  They  are  both  of  the  scarab 
and  the  scaraboid  form,  and  are  not  set  in  rings,  but  pierced  through 
for  attachment  by  means  of  a swivel,  so  as  to  be  handy  for  use  as 
seals.  They  are  made  in  chalcedony,  carnelian,  striped  agate,  and 
other  hard  stones,  and  cut  on  the  wheel." 

Archaic  Greek  gems  of  the  sixth  century  fall  into  three  classes  : 
the  Ionic  gems  already  described,  the  Graeco-Phoenician  scarabs  from 
Sardinia  and  Cyprus,  and  Greek  scarabs  (mainly  found  in  Etruria, 
but  distinct  from  the  Etruscan  scarabs  of  native  make).  INIany  of  the 
Graeco-Phoenician  scarabs  are  of  considerable  beauty  and  delicacy  of 
execution,  though  both  style  and  subjects  are,  as  is  usual  in  all 
Phoenician  art,  a combination  of  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  ideas. 
Deities  and  symbols  are  combined  without  any  special  meaning, 
merely  in  order  to  form  a graceful  composition.  Greek  influence, 
however,  makes  itself  gradually  felt,  and  by  the  end  of  the  century 
succeeds  in  ousting  all  the  Oriental  element.  Some  of  the  best 
examples  of  Phoenician  gems  are  to  be  found  among  those  from 
Tharros  in  Sardinia,  in  the  British  JMuseum.  They  are  mostly  of 
green  jasper,  and  many  were  found  in  their  original  mounts,  consisting 
of  plain  gold  swivel-rings  on  which  the  scarab  could  turn.  They  are 
probably  of  local  make,  but  are  not  confined  to  the  sixth  century ; 
some  are  as  late  as  the  fifth  or  even  fourth,  as  is  shown  by  the 
evidence  of  the  vases  found  with  them.  The  types  represented  on 
them  include  enthroned  deities  (Baal  ?),  a deity  with  wild  beasts,  and 

1 Similarly,  the  vases  which  there  is  good  reason  for  attributing  to  Ionian  origin  have  nearly 
all  been  found  in  Italy,  not  in  Asia  Minor. 

2 Specimens  of  Ionic  gems  found  in  Asia  Minor  are  given  on  Plate  lxxxix..  Nos.  30-33. 

210 


n.M  r.  xc 


ARCH  \l(  C.RI.I'.K  (il.MSj 


PLATE  XCI 


(;i;ms  of  i'ifiii  sj li: 


ARCHAIC  GREEK  GEMS 


the  Egyptian  Bes.  The  two  latter  are  subsequently  replaced  by 
Herakles  and  Seilenos,  as  are  the  other  types  by  Greek  counterparts.^ 

The  archaic  Greek  scarabs  fall  into  three  periods  of  development. 
At  first  there  is  little  variety  of  motive  and  position,  the  attitudes  of 
the  figures  being  formal  and  conventional,  the  bodies  turned  half  to 
the  front,  half  to  one  side,  and  running  figures  represented  in  a sort  of 
kneeling  attitude.  The  main  object  is  clearly  to  fill  the  space  as 
conveniently  as  possible.  Nor  is  there  much  attempt  at  rendering 
details  of  anatomy.  In  what  may  be  called  the  transitional  style,  of 
about  500-480  B.c.,  a very  marked  change  occurs,  especially  in  the 
representation  of  the  human  form;  it  is  parallel  to  the  contemporaneous 
development  of  sculpture  in  the  Aegina  pediments  and  of  painting  in 
the  work  of  Kimon  and  Euphronios.  The  attitudes  are  no  longer 
stiff ; the  legs  are  given  play,  and  even  foreshortening  occurs. 

The  subjects  engraved  on  these  archaic  gems  range  over  a wide 
field,  from  animals  and  genre  subjects  to  heroic  legends  and  figures  of 
deities.  Herakles  is  an  especially  popular  figure,  as  are  daemonic 
figures,  inferior  deities,  and  monsters  or  fantastic  creations.  Human 
figures  often  occur  without  special  significance,  such  as  warriors  or 
persons  kneeling.  One  of  the  finest  of  existing  archaic  Greek  gems  is 
an  agate  scarab  of  about  500  b.c.  in  the  British  ]\Iuseum,“  representing 
a Satyr  dancing  with  a drinking-cup  in  one  hand ; though  still  showing 
an  archaic  stiffness,  as  in  the  bent  attitude  of  the  figure,  the  work  is 
executed  with  great  delicacy  and  spirit.  The  way  in  which  minute 
details  are  brought  out,  such  as  the  Satyr’s  tail  and  beard,  and  the 
patterns  on  the  cup  and  wine-jar  at  his  side,  speak  much  for  the 
technical  skill  of  the  artist ; and  it  is  interesting  to  note  how  much 
advance  has  been  made  since  the  island-gems  in  arranging  the  design 
so  as  to  cover  all  the  field.  Another  very  exquisite  gem  of  somewhat 
later  date  represents  a young  archer  testing  an  arrow.  The  modelling 
of  the  figure  and  the  rendering  of  the  anatomical  details  are  fully 
worthy  of  comparison  with  such  a work  as  the  Aegina  marbles. 

Greek  gems  of  the  best  period,  i.e.  from  480  to  350  b.c.,  are  un- 
fortunately very  rare  in  comparison  with  those  both  of  earlier  and  of 
later  times.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  they  were  only  made 
for  home  use,  and  were  not  exported  like  the  vases.  In  the  sixth 
century  there  had  been  a considerable  export  (chiefly  from  Asia  INIinor) 
to  Etruria,  but  in  the  fifth  the  Etruscans — as  we  shall  presently  see — 

1 For  examples  of  Graeco-Phoenician  gems,  see  Plate  lxxxix.,  Nos.  1-2C. 

2 Plate  xc.,  No.  14. 


211 


GREEK  GEM-ENGRAVING 


had  learned  to  make  their  own  gems,  and  no  longer  required  to  look 
to  other  nations  to  supply  them.  The  only  outflow  was  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  East.  The  Ionic  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  seem  to  have  made 
large  numbers  of  gems  for  Persia,  adopting  an  Oriental  style  and 
Oriental  subjects ; these  are  mostly  scaraboids  of  chalcedony.  But 
they  also  kept  up  the  traditions  of  the  preceding  century  by  producing 
flne  Greek  gems,  and  Athens  became  a centre  for  the  Ionic  gem- 
engravers,  among  whom  was  Dexanienos  of  Chios,  a notable  artist  of 
the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century. 

His  works  are  found  in  Attica,  and  also  in  Southern  Russia,  a 
region  which  at  that  period  was  in  close  commercial  relations  with 
Athens,  as  we  learn  from  the  private  speeches  of  Demosthenes. 
Unlike  many  of  the  artists’  signatures  on  Greek  gems,  his  are  always 
absolutely  trustworthy.  His  style  has  been  described  as  fine  and 
subtle,  showing  the  influence  of  Athens,  and  free  from  the  soft,  broad, 
and  pictorial  manner  of  Asia  Minor,  exemplifying  the  highest  achieve- 
ments of  Greek  glyptic  art.  The  gems  of  Phrygillos  reproduce  the 
style  of  Pheidias,  and  others,  which  are  unsigned,  may  be  said  to 
exhibit  the  characteristics  of  late  fifth-century  painting,  such  subjects 
as  Philoctetes  and  a female  Centaur  recalling  the  themes  favoured  by 
Zeuxis  and  Parrhasios  (p.  154).  Onatas  made  a fine  gem  with  a figure 
of  Nike  (Victory). 

Some  of  the  gems  found  in  Sicily  appear  to  be  the  work  of  the 
same  individuals  as  the  beautiful  coins  of  the  period  (see  below,  p.  228). 
One  which  had  served  as  an  official  seal  of  the  city  of  Syracuse  exactly 
resembles  the  gold  coins  of  that  city  engraved  by  Kimon  and 
Euainetos.  Similarly  a gem  signed  by  the  Athenian  Olympics,  which 
may  be  placed  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century,  recalls  a coin  of 
the  contemporaneous  Arcadian  league  with  the  type  of  Pan.  Another 
with  a lion  devouring  a stag  reproduces  a coin -type  of  Velia  in 
Lucania. 

Except  in  isolated  instances  the  scarab  form  entirely  disappears 
during  the  fifth  century,  and  the  prevailing  form  is  the  scaraboid,  a 
plain  oval  stone  with  slightly  convex  back.  The  practice  of  boring  the 
stone  longitudinally  is  quite  given  up,  and  the  stones  are  always 
intended  for  setting  in  rings  instead  of  being  hung  on  a swivel.  ^lany 
of  the  rings  of  this  period,  especially  those  found  in  Southern  Russia 
and  Cyprus,  are  of  metal  throughout — gold,  silver,  or  bronze — with 
designs  engraved  on  the  metal  bezel;  they  appear  to  be  Ionic  in  style, 
and  are  thus  a survival  of  the  fashion  to  which  allusion  has  already 
212 


UEMS  OF  BEST  PERIOD 


been  made  (p.  210).  But  the  practice  of  wearing  rings  was  still  re- 
garded as  a luxury,  and  Aristophanes  ^ scoffs  at  the  gilded  youth  of  his 
time  for  wearing  long  hair  and  onyx  seal-rings.  In  the  inventories  of 
tlie  Parthenon  treasures,  Avhich  date  from  434  b.c.  onwards,  seal-rings 
of  gold  and  silver,  set  with  onyx,  jasper  and  sard  stones,  are  frequently 
mentioned.^ 

The  commonest  stones  at  this  time  are  chalcedony,  carnelian, 
banded  agate,  sardonyx  and  rock-crystal.  Dexamenos  favours  a 
mottled  jasper.  Glass  pastes  also  seem  to  have  been  frequently 
employed,  and  are  mentioned  in  the  Parthenon  inventories.  In 
regard  to  the  technique  there  is  an  evident  preference  for  the  use  of 
broad  stumpy  tools  rather  than  sharp-pointed  ones,  and  little  use 
is  made  of  the  drill.  The  object  aimed  at  seems  to  have  been  to 
produce  round  soft  outlines  by  means  of  long,  broad  strokes,  with  a 
general  plastic  effect.  Inscriptions  become  commoner,  including 
signatures  of  artists  as  already  mentioned,  names  of  possessors,  or, 
more  rarely,  such  as  are  descriptive  of  the  subject. 

In  point  of  style,  gems  of  the  fine  period  pass  through  three  stages, 
beginning  with  those  in  which  elements  of  stiffness  are  still  visible 
(480-430  B.c.)  ; next  comes  the  period  of  largeness  of  style  combined 
with  perfect  freedom  (430-400) ; finally,  the  stage  of  perfect  execution 
and  technical  ability,  but  the  large  style  and  pure  ideal  beauty  of  the 
preceding  stage  are  mostly  wanting  (400-300  b.c.). 

The  subjects  display  a far  greater  variety  of  motive  than  in  the 
archaic  period,  and  typical  conventional  themes  are  replaced  by  freedom 
of  conception  and  greater  naturalism.  As  in  sculpture,  the  more 
majestic  gods  disappear,  and  are  replaced  by  those  suggestive  of  love, 
beauty,  and  social  prosperity,  such  as  Aphrodite,  Eros,  and  Nike. 
Again,  there  is  a parallelism  with  the  contemporary  painted  vases,  in 
the  general  preference  for  subjects  taken  from  daily  life,  especially 
representations  of  musicians,  or  scenes  from  the  life  of  women.  As 
examples  may  be  cited  three  very  lovely  gems  in  the  British  Museum 
collection,  which  rank  among  the  finest  in  existence,  although  their 
themes  are  comparatively  trifling.  One  is  a burnt  carnelian  with  a 
youth  playing  on  a triangular  lyre,  another  a fragmentary  sard  with  a 
girl  reading  from  a scroll,  and  the  third  a sard  representing  a girl 
carrying  a water-pitcher,  like  the  hijdrophoi'i  of  the  Parthenon  frieze.^ 

* Nuhei^,  332. 

^ See  for  example  Brit.  Mns.  Inscrs.,  i.  No.  20  (308  ii.c.). 

^ See  Plate  xci.,  No.  5 ; Plate  xcii.,  Nos.  8,  10. 

213 


GREEK  GEM-ENGRAVING 


We  thus  observe  a gradual  divergence  from  the  coin-types,  which 
continue  to  represent  deities  for  the  most  part. 

AVe  have  seen  that  in  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  it  is  possible  to 
establish  a fairly  satisfactory  chronological  sequence  of  Greek  gems 
according  to  their  style,  and  sometimes  even  to  date  them  within  ten 
years  or  so.  But  in  the  succeeding  period  of  the  Hellenistic  Age  this 
is  not  the  case.  From  considerations  of  form,  technique,  style,  or 
subject  certain  gems  may  be  characterised  as  Hellenistic,  but  they 
cannot  be  assigned  to  any  particular  period  within  the  200  years  of 
that  epocli.  There  was,  in  short,  an  entire  homogeneity  of  style  pre- 
vailing throughout,  which  lasted  on  into  the  Graeco-Iloman  period, 
just  as  the  school  of  sculpture  at  Rhodes  prolonged  its  activities  into 
the  first  century  b.c.  Our  limits  of  date,  then,  may  be  set  between  the 
age  of  Alexander  and  the  end  of  the  second  century.  Further  than 
this  stage  we  need  not  pursue  the  subject,  as  to  treat  of  the  enormous 
number  of  gems  of  the  Roman  period  which  are  in  existence  would 
not  only  cause  this  sketch  to  exceed  its  limits,  but  belong  more 
properly  to  the  subject  of  Roman  than  of  Greek  Art. 

After  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  b.c.  the  practice  came  in 
in  Greece  of  engraving  intaglio  designs  on  a thin  slice  of  stone,  which 
was  easily  adapted  for  mounting  in  a ring,  and  further  implied  that 
more  was  thought  of  the  design  than  of  the  value  of  the  stone,  a point 
indeed  which  strikes  us  as  true  of  the  Greeks  at  all  times.  It  was  not 
until  the  increase  of  luxury  and  magnificence  in  all  the  appointments 
of  life  among  the  Romans  of  the  Empire  that  the  most  prominent 
consideration  was  given  (as  in  modern  times)  to  the  stone  itself.  The 
scaraboid  form  and  the  plain  metal  rings  are  no  longer  seen  ; but,  on 
the  other  hand,  a convex  surface  is  sometimes  adopted  for  the  face  of 
the  gem,  as  admitting  of  deeper  cutting,  and  giving  a more  plastic 
effect. 

The  favourite  stone  of  the  period  is  a new  one,  the  jacinth,  which 
was  an  importation  from  India,  dating  from  the  time  of  Alexander, 
and  was  usually  cut  convex  for  the  sake  of  the  translucent  effect. 
Beryl,  topaz,  and  amethyst  are  also  found,  and  all  the  stones  in  vogue 
in  the  last  period  retain  their  popularity,  together  with  coloured  pastes. 
The  designs  are  often  very  shallow,  with  fine  seratchy  lines,  and, 
generally  speaking,  exhibit  a combination  of  extraordinary  softness 
with  careful  rendering  of  details  by  means  of  fine  tools,  but  without 
the  success  achieved  by  Dexamenos.  In  style  there  are  no  new 
214 


rLM'j:  .VC// 


i.x'ii'.k  (;ki  i:k  (;i,.ms 


I'LATE  AC/II 


i:  I Ri’scAN  (;k.ms 


I- 1 I.  Al-a  IIAIC. 


I2-J4.  .MIDDI  K 1’|;kIU1). 


25-31.  1-AI'kk  ri;k-ii)ii 


LATER  GREEK  GEMS 

developments,  but  merely  (as  in  contemporary  sculpture)  the  carrying 
on  of  the  traditions  of  the  fourth  century,  often  with  exaggeration. 
Many  of  the  designs,  though  careless  and  sketchy,  are  yet  effective  and 
even  charming ; many  again  repeat  the  easy  attitudes  and  sensuous 
conceptions  of  Praxiteles,  or  the  Scopaic  tendency  to  pathos  and 
emotion.  At  the  same  time  there  is  a certain  tendency  to  archaism, 
as  in  some  of  the  types  of  deities,  or  at  least  to  the  reproduction 
of  the  ideal  style  of  the  fifth  century. 

The  artists’  signatures  in  this  period  are  very  numerous ; on  the 
other  hand,  there  are  no  gems  remaining  from  the  hand  of  the  only 
engraver  who  enjoyed  literary  fame,  namely,  Pyrgo teles,  who,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  was  tlie  only  one  permitted  to  engrave  the  head 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  This  privilege,  it  will  be  remembered,  he 
enjoyed  in  common  with  Lysippos  and  Apelles.  Among  the  subjects 
portraits  now  begin  to  play  the  most  important  role,  from  Alexander 
downwards,  as  they  also  do  on  the  coins.  This  was  of  course  mainly  a 
result  of  the  individualising  tendencies  of  the  age.  The  great 
conqueror,  his  features  often  much  idealised,  and  JNlithradates,  the 
king  of  Pontus,  were  favourite  subjects.  Mythological  subjects  are 
mainly  drawn  from  the  Bacchic  cycle,  or  the  following  of  Aphrodite  ; 
E ros  and  Psyche,  Artemis,  the  Egyptian  Isis,  and  river-gods  are  among 
the  most  typical  themes ; but  heroic  subjects  are  extremely  rare. 
Scenes  from  daily  life  assume  a somewhat  different  and  more  idyllic 
character,  including  landscapes  and  pastoral  subjects ; and  simple 
subjects,  such  as  masks  or  symbols,  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  Hellenistic  gem-engraving  is  the 
appearance  of  the  cameo,  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  century.  Its 
prototype  is  probably  to  be  looked  for  in  the  scarabs  with  designs 
carved  in  relief  on  the  back,  of  which  Ionia  and  Etruria  furnish  some 
examples.  One  of  the  earliest  known  was  found  in  a tomb  in  the 
Crimea,  with  coins  of  Lysimachos  (323-281  n.c.) ; its  subject  is  Eros 
with  a butterfly,  an  essentially  Hellenistic  type.  The  material  always 
specially  associated  with  the  cameo  was  the  sardonyx,  with  its  layers 
of  translucent  brown  and  opaque  white  stone,  which  gave  such 
opportunities  of  effective  contrast  between  the  design  and  its  back- 
ground. In  later  times  the  alternate  layers  were  used  with  great 
ingenuity  for  contrasts  of  colour  in  the  design  itself,  the  brown  being 
utilised  for  hair  and  white  for  flesh,  or  a chariot  was  engraved  with 
four  horses  alternately  brown  and  white,  as  on  a cameo  in  the  British 
M useum.  But  in  the  Hellenistic  Age  the  brown  was  usually  confined 

21,5 


(IREEK  UEM-ENaRAVING 


to  the  background ; and  further,  the  design  was  treated  in  higher 
relief,  and  with  more  plastic  feeling,  than  in  the  Roman  period. 

Alexandria  and  Antioch  appear  to  have  been  the  chief  centres  of 
cameo-cutting,  and  one  of  the  finest  specimens  in  existence,  represent- 
ing heads  of  Alexander  and  Olympias,  was  made  at  the  former  place. 
Other  fine  cameos  have  heads  of  Alexander  and  Athena,  and  of  the 
Macedonian  king  Perseus.  Signed  examples  by  the  artists  Athenion 
and  Hoetho  are  in  existence.  An  altogether  new  departure  in  this 
direction  Avas  the  employment  of  precious  stones  for  other  purposes 
than  hnger-rings,  and  thus  we  not  only  find  earrings,  diadems  and 
other  ornaments  cut  as  cameos  in  various  stones,  but  even  vases 
contrived  in  this  fashion.  A famous  instance  is  the  Farnese  cup  at 
Naples,  a remarkable  example  of  Alexandrine  work,  the  subjects  on 
which  are  the  aegis  with  head  of  Medusa,  and  an  Egyptian  landscape 
and  no  less  fine  is  the  cup  of  the  Ptolemies  in  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale  at  Paris,  cut  out  of  a single  piece  of  sardonyx.  The  layers 
(^f  stone  in  the  latter  are  so  manipulated  as  to  give  an  extraordinarily 
rich  effect  of  colour,  the  figures  being  in  Avhite  and  light  brown  on  a 
dark  brown  background.  The  subject  is  a sort  of  ‘ Bacchic  still-life,’  or 
preparations  for  a Bacchic  ceremony,  including  a table  Avith  drinking- 
cups,  masks,  and  vine-Avreaths.  IFit  the  composition  is  somcAAdiat 
croAvded,  and  the  experiment  can  hardly  be  considered  altogether  in 
good  taste. 

As  in  the  description  of  Greek  metal-Avork,  in  Chapter  xiii.,  we 
shall  see  that  the  subject  Avill  be  incomplete  Avithout  introducing  the 
consideration  of  Etruscan  achievements  in  that  line ; so  Avith  the 
history  of  ancient  gem-engraving.  Consistently  AAuth  their  usual 
practice,  the  Etruscans  began  by  borroAving  all  that  they  could  from 
Greece,  and  developed  their  acquired  knowledge  into  an  independent 
art.  Hence  the  rise  of  the  native  art  is  comparatively  of  late  date, 
and  at  first  the  only  gems  found  in  Etruria  are  of  foreign  origin,  Greek 
or  Phoenician.  The  earliest  examples  belong  to  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century  b.c.,  being  found  with  early  red-figured  Abases,  and  represent 
the  stage  reached  by  Greek  art  in  the  latter  half  of  that  century.  The 
new  industry  Avas  taken  up  Avith  great  vigour  and  avidity,  but  never 
succeeded  in  rivalling  the  (h*eek  work  in  style  or  execution,  in  spite 
of  the  excellence  of  their  technical  skill. 

The  scarab-form  Avas  fixed  for  the  Etruscan  gem-engraA^ers  by  the 

* Furtvvan^ler,  Ant.  Geiumen,  pis.  .54-55. 


21G 


ETRUSCAN  SCARABS 


fact  that  it  was  the  only  one  with  whicli  they  were  familiar  from 
importations,  Greek  or  Phoenician.  When  once  adopted,  therefore, 
it  was  rigidly  adhered  to  in  their  characteristic  mechanical  fashion. 
After  about  480  b.c.  no  more  Greek  scarabs  are  found  in  Etruria,  and 
consequently  also  no  scaraboids,  and  thus  we  see  that  all  subsequent 
work  is  a purely  native  independent  development.  In  one  point  they 
outdid  the  Greeks,  namely  in  the  attention  which  they  devoted  to  the 
execution  of  the  scarab  itself,  even  when  the  intaglio  design  was 
careless.  The  Greeks  only  cared  about  the  latter,  but  to  the  Etruscans 
the  scarab  was  an  artistic  and  ornamental  form. 

The  usual  material  for  the  scarabs  is  carnelian,  but  sardonyx  and 
striped  agate  are  also  found.  The  designs  are  always  on  as  large  a 
scale  as  possible,  and  display  a fondness  for  figures  whieh  have  to  be 
distorted  to  fit  into  a spaee.  Some  of  the  older  and  better  specimens 
are  characterised  by  great  refinement  and  minuteness  of  detail,  and 
as  a rule  the  technieal  standard  is  very  high.  In  the  style  and  pro- 
portions of  the  figures  the  influence  of  Greek  models  is  very  apparent. 
A great  feature  of  Etrusean  scarabs  is  that  they  are  often  supplied 
with  inseriptions  explanatory  of  the  subjects,  i.c.  names  of  Greek 
heroes  in  Etruscan  forms  as  on  the  engraved  bronze  mirrors.^  On 
the  other  hand  artists’  signatures  and  names  of  possessors  are  unknown. 
Another  characteristic  feature  by  which  they  may  be  recognised  is  an 
ornamental  border  of  small  eircles  or  hatehed  lines  encircling  the 
design. 


The  subjects  are  mainly  taken  from  legends  of  the  Greek  heroes, 
and  deities  are  rarely  portrayed.  The  types  of  the  latter  are  always 
Greek,  even  the  Avinged  deities  of  whieh  the  Etruscans  were  so  fond 
being  originally  borrowed  from  Ionian  art.  The  favourite  heroes  are 
Achilles  and  Peleus,  Odysseus  and  Ajax,  Kapaneus,  and  Tydeus  and 
others  from  the  Theban  legends.  Herakles  only  becomes  popular  on 
the  later  scarabs.  There  are  instances  of  a representation  of  Prometheus 
which  is  evidently  borrowed  from  Aeschylus,  and  of  a Laocoon  subject 
derived  from  the  same  source  from  Avhich  Virgil  drew  his  famous 
description.^  Greek  art,  religion,  and  culture,  are  everywhere  dominant, 
and  the  element  of  Etruscan  native  mythology  is  conspicuously 
absent. 

Several  stages  of  development  may  be  observed  in  the  Etruscan 
scarabs,  extending  from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  down  to  the 


^ Many  of  these  are  false,  havinp:  been  added  in  the  eijyfhteenth  century. 
In  the  Britisli  Museum.  See  Plate  xciii.,  No.  31. 


217 


GREEK  GEM-ENGRAVING 


end  of  tlie  fourth,  or  perhaps  even  later.  The  earliest  examples, 
belonging  to  the  sixth  century,^  usually  have  single  figures  or  groups 
in  stiff  archaic  attitudes ; draped  figures  of  deities,  often  winged,  recall 
the  earlier  types  of  Etruscan  bronze  mirrors.  The  next  stage,  which 
approximates  most  closely  to  the  Greek  work,  reproduces  the  style 
of  the  period  of  the  Persian  wars,  as  exemplified  in  the  Aegina  pedi- 
ments and  the  vases  of  Euphronios.  The  subjeets  are  mainly  heroic 
figures,  and  the  attitudes  are  no  longer  straight  and  stiff,  but  the 
figures  can  turn  and  bend  in  all  directions.  The  human  form  is  treated 
in  the  dry  sinewy  manner  we  have  noted  in  the  Aegina  sculptures, 
and  throughout  there  is  a close  dependence  on  Greek  art.  On  the 
other  hand  there  are  scarabs  which  must  belong  to  this  period,  yet 
exhibit  full  soft  forms,  even  becoming  careless  and  degenerate. 

The  next  group  shows  the  full  influence  of  the  free  Greek  style 
of  450-400  B.c.^  The  subjects  are  mostly  single  youthful  figures, 
bending  so  as  to  fit  into  the  oval  space,  yet  natural  and  free  from 
stiffness  or  hardness  in  anatomical  detail.  There  is  a good  specimen 
in  the  British  INIuseum  with  the  subject  of  Herakles  and  the  Nemean 
lion,  which  compares  very  favourably  with  a similar  type  on  a Greek 
coin  of  Herakleia  in  Lucania,  dating  about  420  b.c.  Comparisons 
may  also  be  made  with  the  engraved  bronze  work  of  the  period. 
Finally  there  is  a group  of  scarabs  which  are  dependent  for  their  pro- 
totypes on  Greek  art  of  the  fourth  century,  thus  completing  the 
normal  development  of  the  Etruscan  scarab.  Female  figures  become 
commoner,  and  there  is  an  absence  of  any  restraint,  or  of  any  attempt 
to  fill  in  the  whole  space  of  the  design.  The  fourth-century  Etruscan 
mirrors  with  women  bathing  or  at  their  toilet  present  corresponding 
artistic  features. 

In  the  fourth  century,  however,  there  is  an  entirely  new  and 
independent  development,  in  the  large  and  numerous  class  of  drilled 
scarabs,  so  called  because  the  work  is  done  almost  entirely  by  means 
of  the  drill,  which  produces  shallow  saucer-shaped  depressions  in  the 
stone.  The  designs  are  rude,  sketchy,  and  altogether  unpleasing,  and 
it  is  obvious  that  figures  produced  in  this  way,  i.e,  made  up  of  small 
circular  markings,  could  not  have  any  great  artistic  merit.  The 
favourite  subjects  are  Herakles  and  Seilenos  ; deities  such  as  Apollo, 
Artemis,  and  Leto,  and  monsters  such  as  Fegasos,  the  Chimaera,  and 
Centaurs,  are  also  very  common.  From  daily  life  we  have  frequent 
representations  of  chariots,  athletes,  combats,  and  hunting-scenes. 


^ See  Plate  xciii. , Nos.  l-ll, 
218 


- llnd,,  Nos.  12-24. 


ETRUSCAN  SCARABS 

These  gems  are  found  with  the  latest  and  most  degenerate  Etruscan 
bronze-work  and  pottery,  and  do  not  rise  above  them  in  merit;  but 
sometimes  archaising  specimens  occur,  in  which  the  drill-marks  are 
combined  with  finely-cut  lines. ^ 

The  subsequent  development  of  Italian  gem-engraving  comes,  like 
that  of  Greek,  under  the  category  of  Roman  Art. 

Incidental  allusions  have  been  made  throughout  the  preceding 
pages  to  technical  details  in  connection  with  ancient  gems,  but  it  may 
serve  to  render  these  more  intelligible  if  they  are  supplemented  by  a 
brief  general  summary  of  the  various  methods  employed. 

The  tools  used  by  ancient  gem-engravers  were  three  in  number, 
the  drill,  the  wheel,  and  the  diamond  point.  The  stone  was  fixed  for 
working  in  a bed  of  cement,  the  tools  being  freely  worked  with  the 
hand,  which  is  the  exact  reverse  of  the  usual  modern  practice.  The 
drill  was  manipulated  by  means  of  a small  bow,  the  string  of  which 
was  wound  round  its  stem,  as  we  may  actually  see  depicted  on  a 
scarab  of  the  fifth  century  in  the  British  JMuseum  ; it  had  a bronze 
tip,  and  the  actual  cutting  was  done  with  emery-powder  mixed  with 
oil,  known  as  corundum.  In  the  archaic  gems,  as  in  the  Etruscan 
scarabs  just  described,  the  use  of  the  drill  is  very  conspicuous,  especi- 
ally in  the  series  of  close-set  holes  which  reproduce  the  short  curly 
hair  of  a man.  This  method  of  treating  the  hair  was  imitated  by  the 
vase-painters  of  the  best  period,  who  use  close-set  raised  dots  of  a 
thick  black  pigment  for  the  purpose. 

The  use  of  the  wheel  is  especially  conspicuous  in  the  ‘ island- 
stones  ’ ; ^ it  was  a small  bronze  disc  set  on  a shaft  of  metal  and  worked 
like  the  drill  with  a bow  and  tube,  and  emery-powder ; its  purpose 
was  for  cutting  lines  to  connect  the  points  made  by  the  drill  or  else 
for  broad  sunk  surfaces.  The  diamond-point  on  the  other  hand  was 
used  like  a pencil,  with  the  hand  alone ; it  resembled  the  modern 
glass-cutter’s  diamond,  and  was  employed  for  giving  an  artistic  finish 
to  the  design,  which  could  of  course  be  best  done  witli  the  free  hand. 
The  use  of  this  tool  required  great  technical  skill,  the  results  of  which 
may  be  clearly  seen  on  two  of  the  best  gems  in  the  British  JMuseum 
collection,  the  girl  with  the  pitcher  noticed  on  p.  213,  and  a fine  fifth- 
century  head  of  Zeus.^  In  the  former  the  diamond-point  has  been 
employed  to  touch  up  the  graceful  falling  folds  of  the  drapery ; in  the 

1 See  Plate  xciii.,  Nos.  25-31.  ^ee  Plate  lxxxix.,  especially  Nos.  28-31. 

^ Plate  xci.,  No.  21. 


219 


GREEK  GEM-ENGRAVING 

latter  it  has  brought  out  with  the  most  delicate  finish  the  lines  of  the 
hair  on  the  head. 

Gem-engraving  is  almost  the  only  branch  of  art  in  which  the 
excellence  of  ancient  work  is  seriously  challenged  by  modern  rivals. 
Tiiere  is  moreover  no  harder  task  for  the  archaeological  expert  or  con- 
noisseur to  solve  than  to  decide  on  the  antiquity  or  modernity  of  a 
particular  gem ; and  yet  there  is  no  (juestion  which  confronts  him 
oftener  than  this.  The  minuteness  of  the  work  militates  against  the 
training  of  the  eye  which  is  of  so  much  assistance  elsewhere,  and  the 
imperishableness  of  the  material  deprives  the  investigator  of  yet 
another  auxiliary,  the  condition  of  surface.  But  it  would  not  be  right 
to  leave  this  subject  without  attempting  to  consider  what  criteria, 
if  any,  will  best  assist  our  judgment. 

M.  Tyszkiewicz  considered  that  the  capacity  for  judging  gems 
nascitur  noii  fit^^  and  instances  the  famous  collector  Alessandro  Castel- 
lani,  who  with  all  his  taste  and  experience  in  matters  of  art  was  yet 
constantly  imposed  upon  by  vendors  of  worthless  gems.  He  has  also 
pointed  out  that  only  constant  handling  and  study  of  objects  can  give 
experience ; engravings  and  reproductions  are  untrustworthy  and  in 
fact  spoil  the  eye.  Of  late  years  amateurs  have  become  so  mistrustful 
that  the  forgers  no  longer  find  it  worth  their  while  to  manufacture 
gems,  but  the  difficulty  still  exists  to  be  guarded  against.  The  chief 
points  to  be  considered  are  subject,  style,  material,  and  form,  and 
above  all  technical  details,  such  as  polish. 

]Mr.  C.  W.  King,  who  for  so  long  was  regarded  as  the  chief 
English  authority  on  the  subject,“  concurs  in  ]\I.  Tyszkiewicz’s  opinions, 
but  has  laid  down  some  general  rules  to  be  observed,  which  it  may  be 
of  interest  to  recapitulate.  In  the  first  place,  inasmuch  as  all  ancient 
intaglios  were  made  to  be  worn  in  rings  as  signets,  any  exceeding  the 
size  of  an  ordinary  ring-stone  must  be  suspected.  Such  were  frequently 
made  in  the  Cinque-cento  and  Renaissance  period,  but  the  best  work 
of  the  ancient  engravers  tended  to  minuteness  rather  than  largeness  of 
scale.  Groups  of  figures  and  historical  subjects  as  distinguished  from 
mythological  are  also  characteristic  of  that  period,  and  in  fact  Cinque- 
cento  gems  may  be  easily  recognised  by  their  marked  style  and  absence 
of  technical  cleverness.  The  filling  in  of  space  and  absence  of  margin 
is  a characteristic  of  ancient  gems  which  the  modern  artist  usually 

^ Revue  Arclu'-oL,  xxvii.  (181)5),  p.  281. 

2 See  his  Antique  Gems  and  Rings  (1872),  i.  p.  18  ff. 

220 


FORGERIES 


ignores,  and,  generally  speaking,  the  latter’s  work  is  pictorial,  whereas 
the  former  are  sculpturesque,  with  simple  restrained  compositions  and 
designs  in  one  plane  like  sculpture  in  relief. 

Ancient  stones  are  often  of  irregular  form  at  the  back,  retaining 
their  original  configuration  with  only  a margin  rounded  off*  for  the 
setting,  the  idea  being  to  augment  the  depth  of  tlie  colour  in  the 
finished  gem.  Again,  deep  parallel  scratches  are  often  to  be  seen  on 
the  back,  caused  by  the  use  of  emery  polish,  whereas  the  modern 
process  gives  a perfectly  smooth  surface ; but  the  modern  forger  dis- 
covered a way  to  produce  even  this,  by  cramming  newly-made  gems 
down  a turkey’s  throat,  in  order  that  the  trituration  of  the  gizzard 
might  give  the  necessary  abraded  surface  ! This  was  the  case  with 
many  of  the  gems  in  the  fiimous  Poniatowsky  collection.  A highly- 
polished  surface  is  always  suspicious,  and  the  truest  test  is  a slight 
degree  of  dulness  resembling  that  produced  by  breathing  on  a bright 
surface.  This  time  alone  can  achieve,  and  though  easily  recognised  it 
cannot  be  imitated.  Another  difficulty  which  arises  is  that  antique 
stones  may  have  been  cut  or  recut  in  modern  times,  and  this  is  most 
difficult  to  detect,  but  with  a powerful  lens  the  effects  of  the  subse- 
quent reworking  often  become  visible.  Moreover  the  use  of  the 
diamond-point  for  lines  and  the  drill  for  the  deeper  parts,  which  forms 
one  of  the  chief  distinctions  between  ancient  and  modern  gems,  should 
always  be  one  of  the  principal  guides  for  the  connoisseur. 


221 


CHAPTER  XII 


GREEK  COINS 

Use  of  study  of  Greek  coins — Artistic  features — Invention  of  coinage — Technical 
processes — Inscrijitions — Coin-types  and  their  meaning — Character  of  coins  of 
different  countries — Italy  and  Sicily — Greece  and  Asia  Minor — Chronological 
classification  and  artistic  development. 

TO  do  justice  to  the  history  of  Greek  coins  even  from  one  point 
of  view,  that  of  their  artistic  side,  is  well-nigh  impossible  in 
a brief  space.  All  that  can  be  done  to  justify  the  attempt  is 
to  trace  the  outline  of  their  artistic  development,  touching  on  a few 
points  of  special  interest.  For  Greek  coins  are  in  many  respects  the 
most  fascinating  branch  of  ancient  art,  their  interest  being  so  many- 
sided  : historical,  mythological,  and  aesthetic ; and  moreover,  from  the 
greater  facilities  for  their  acquirement,  they  appeal  more  than  most 
antiquities  to  the  ordinary  amateur. 

Greek  coins  have  been  described  as  forming  the  grammar  of  Greek 
art,^  and  this  saying  is  justified  by  the  fact  that  in  them  we  have  a 
complete  and  exhaustive  series  of  ancient  monuments,  absolutely  free 
from  restoration  or  other  defects,  small  in  size  yet  large  in  treatment, 
and  ranging  over  the  whole  period  of  Greek  civilisation  from  early 
archaism  down  to  its  absorption  in  the  flood  of  Roman  dominion. 
Their  small  size  is  not  indeed  an  advantage  in  all  respects.  It  would 
have  been  contrary  to  all  canons  of  Greek  taste  and  feeling  for  form 
to  crowd  a composition  by  introducing  more  than  one  or  two  figures 
into  so  confined  a space,  or  to  admit  any  complicated  subject,  and  this 
of  course  entails  a narrow  range  of  themes  and  little  scope  for  varied 
composition.  Moreover  it  must  be  remembered  that  coins  were  not 
primarily  works  of  art,  like  vases  or  gems.  To  the  Greek  they  merely 
served  a utilitarian,  ix,  commercial,  purpose,  and  if  in  making  a coin 
he  produced  a thing  of  beauty,  this  was,  so  to  speak,  accidental,  due  to 
his  instinctive  capacity  for  giving  a beautiful  form  to  any  object  he 

1 Head,  llistoria  Numorum,  p.  lix. 


222 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL  VALUE  OF  COINS 

produced.  Thus  it  should  excite  no  surprise  that  we  often  find  the 
most  beautiful  examples  of  (xreek  coinage  not  in  im])ortant  cities  like 
Athens  or  Argos,  but  in  out-of-the-way  towns  whose  single  claim  to 
renown  is  that  they  have  thus  enriched  our  knowledge  of  Greek  art, 
such  as  Terina  in  Southern  Italy,  Sybrita  in  Crete,  or  Clazomenae  in 
Asia  JNIinor.  Did  we  possess  all  the  other  remains  of  Greek  art  in 
complete  preservation  Ave  should  probably  ignore  the  coins  altogether ; 
but  as  things  are,  our  heritage  of  ancient  sculpture  is  exceedingly  frag- 
mentary, that  of  painting  still  more  so,  whereas  of  Greek  coins  we 
have  a completer  knowledge  than  any  individual  ancient  could  have 
possessed. 

The  trifling  disadvantages  then  which  meet  the  student  of  Greek 
numismatics  are  more  than  outweighed  by  the  many  advantages 
afforded  by  this  branch  of  art.  In  the  first  place,  as  compared  with 
sculpture,  coins  are  one  and  all  genuine  originals,  not  copies ; they  are 
free  from  restorations ; and  they  are  largely  the  work  of  actual  masters 
of  the  art,  though  there  are  cases  in  which  they  may  have  been  deputed 
to  workmen  or  pupils  like  some  of  the  Greek  temple  sculptures. 
Secondly,  there  is  no  question  of  unreality  in  their  style  or  of  the 
affected  archaism  which  frequently  puzzles  the  student  of  vases  or 
terra-cottas,  or  indeed  of  sculpture ; at  least  in  regard  to  the  latter,  its 
occurrence  can  always  be  checked  by  external  features  of  fabric  or 
otherwise.  Hence  the  canons  of  style  (when  once  laid  down)  will 
always  apply  for  the  dating  of  any  given  coin.  Thirdly,  Greek  coins 
have  an  official  character  which  ensures  careful  choice  of  types  and  an 
absence  of  caprice  or  instability  in  their  use.  It  also  of  course  tended 
to  limit  the  choice  of  subjects,  heroic  legend,  for  instance,  being  largely 
excluded  except  in  the  Homan  period,  but  the  loss  in  this  way  is  not 
great,  and  there  is  a gain  in  other  Avays,  the  religious  character  of  many 
coin-types  facilitating  allusion  to  cults  and  deities  of  Avhom  Ave  should 
otherwise  know  little,  such  as  river-gods  and  Avater-nymphs.  And 
fourthly,  they  are  of  inestimable  value  as  original  documents  for 
historical  purposes,  a series  of  coins  of  any  particular  city  forming  as 
it  were  a commentary  on  its  history,  besides  supplying  evidence  of 
historical  facts,  where  literary  sources  have  failed  us. 

There  is,  besides,  no  branch  of  ancient  monuments  Avhich  lends 
itself  more  satisfactorily  to  scientific  classification.  It  has  been  said 
that  the  main  object  of  any  exact  and  reasoned  study  of  archaeology 
is  to  determine  the  place  which  gave  birth  to  each  of  the  works  of  art 
which  successively  come  up  for  judgment,  as  well  as  the  time  at  Avhich 

223 


UREEK  COINS 


that  birth  took  place. ^ It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  these  two  questions 
can  be  answered  with  certainty  and  accuracy  with  regard  to  almost  any 
coin  ; it  is  far  from  being  so  with  most  works  of  art.  The  date  of  a coin 
is  most  satisfactorily  determined  by  any  historical  indications  which  it 
may  afford  ; next  by  reference  to  standards  of  weight ; next  by  considera- 
tions of  fabric  and  technicpie  ; further,  by  means  of  its  inscription  ; and 
not  infrequently  by  the  circumstances  of  its  discovery,  as,  for  instance, 
if  it  is  found  in  a hoard  along  with  others  of  more  certain  date. 

The  attractiveness  of  Greek  coins  to  the  artistic  eye  has  been  well 
explained  by  Ruskin  in  a familiar  passage.^  ‘ Sculpture,’  he  says, 
‘is  essentially  the  production  of  a pleasant  bossiness  or  roundness  of 
surface.’  And  if  we  give  to  the  term  ‘ sculpture  ’ the  widened  meaning 
which  he  gave,  and  which  is  etymologically  permissible  in  speaking  of 
coins,  we  shall  see  how  truly  they  illustrate  this  principle.  ‘ If,’  he 
continues,  ‘ you  look  from  some  distance  at  these  two  engravings  of 
Greek  coins  . . . you  will  find  the  relief  on  each  of  them  simplifies 
itself  into  a pearl-like  portion  of  a sphere,  with  exquisitely  gradated 
light  on  its  surface.  When  you  look  at  them  nearer,  you  will  see  that 
each  smaller  portion  into  which  they  are  divided — cheek,  or  brow,  or 
leaf,  or  tress  of  hair — resolves  itself  also  into  a rounded  or  undulating 
surface,  pleasant  by  gradation  of  light.  Every  several  surface  is 
delightful  in  itself,  as  a shell,  or  a tuft  of  rounded  moss,  or  the  bossy 
masses  of  distant  forest  would  be.  That  these  intricately  modulated 
masses  present  some  resemblance  to  a girl’s  face,  such  as  the  Syracusans 
imagined  that  of  the  water-goddess  Arethusa’  (it  is  of  a Syracusan 
tetradrachm  that  he  is  speaking),  ‘ is  entirely  a secondary  matter ; the 
primary  condition  is  that  the  masses  shall  be  beautifully  rounded,  and 
disposed  with  due  discretion  and  order.’ 

It  is  this  effect  of  rounded  surfaces,  with  their  play  of  light  and 
shade,  which  produces  the  aesthetic  satisfaction  felt  in  examining  an 
ancient  coin.  How  different  from  the  effect  of  modern  productions! 
Like  a wood-cut  of  a landscape  or  artistic  object  as  compared  with  a 
photographic  reproduction,  the  modern  coin  is,  so  to  speak,  only  a 
group  of  lines,  while  the  ancient  exhibits  massed  surfaces  with  effects 
of  li^ht  and  shade.^ 

1 P.  Gardner,  Types  of  Greek  Coins,  p.  51). 

2 Aratra  Fentelici,  p.  23  (1372  ed.),  and  see  also  pp.  77  ff.,  130 

3 In  this  res})ect  it  is  only  right  to  point  out  that  some  more  recent  issues  of  English  coins  {e.y. 
the  1893  half-crowns)  have  shown  an  improvement,  as  compared,  for  instance,  with  the  Jubilee 
coinage  of  1887. 

224 


AESTHETIC  ASPECT  OF  GREEK  COIKS 

Greek  coins  are,  as  Sir  Charles  Newton  has  said,  ‘among  the  most 
exquisite  productions  of  ancient  art ; they  are  finished  with  a delicacy 
happily  described  by  Pliny  as  argutiae  opervm  in  minimis  qnoqne  rebus 
custoditae,'  a delicacy  of  workmanship  adhered  to  even  in  tlie  smallest 
details.  In  them  ‘the  Greek  artist  contrived  to  obtain  grandeur  and 
breadth  of  effect,  even  wlien  his  design  was  on  the  most  limited  scale,’ 
nor  must  we  overlook  the  ingenuity  with  which  he  overcame  the 
limited  space  at  his  disposal  by  his  choice  and  arrangement  of  figures, 
never  leaving  awkward  spaces  or  crowding  his  compositions.  They 
are  also  instructive  as  a study  in  the  treatment  of  relief,  which  in 
their  case  is  something  midway  between  high  and  low  relief,  or  mezzo 
rilievo,  combining  the  merits  of  both  and  avoiding  their  defects.  If 
the  relief  had  been  stronger  they  would  not  have  served  their  purpose 
as  convenient  media  of  exchange,  but  would  have  become  too  rotund 
and  cumbrous ; if  it  had  been  lower,  friction  would  soon  have  worn 
away  the  designs,  as  is  the  case  with  modern  silver  coins.  The  intaglio 
designs  on  the  reverses  of  some  of  the  early  coins  of  JNIagna  Graecia 
may  represent  an  attempt  at  minimising  the  latter  danger ; but  it  was 
soon  found  that  a more  satisfactory  result  was  obtained  by  raising  the 
less  important  parts ; and  thus  in  many  cases  the  strong  projection  of 
a head  has  preserved  the  features  intact  while  the  hair,  which  gave  less 
artistic  scope,  has  alone  suffered  injury. 

The  coins,  then,  claim  our  interest  not  only  for  the  variety  of 
their  designs  but  as  works  of  art;  and  it  will  be  the  object  of  the 
following  pages — after  some  remarks  on  their  technical  and  historical 
interest — to  enter  in  some  detail  upon  a consideration  of  these  two 
points. 

The  invention  of  coinage  was  attributed  to  various  nations,  but  the 
evidence  is  greatly  in  favour  of  the  Lydians,  although  some  have 
connected  it  with  Aegina.  Literary  evidence  tends  to  show  that 
Pheidon  of  Argos  (whose  date  is  not  certain)  first  established  a 
standard  of  measures  for  the  use  of  the  Aeginetans,  but  there  was  an 
older  tradition,  supported  by  Herodotus,  that  the  Lydians  were  the 
first  who,  in  his  words,  ‘ made  use  of  a coinage  which  they  cut  in  gold 
and  silver,  and  they  were  the  first  traders.’  This  tradition  appears  to 
reach  as  far  back  as  the  sixth  century.  It  is  most  likely,  having 
reirard  to  the  abundance  of  electrum  to  be  found  in  Asia  INIinor,  that 
the  Lydians  were  the  first  to  strike  coins  in  this  material,  in  the 
seventh  century  b.c.,  and  that  contemporaneously  a silver  coinage  was 
started  in  Aegina.  The  earliest  coins  of  the  latter  state  of  which 


G.  A,— 15 


99 


•JO 


UREEK  COINS 


specimens  exist  were  stamped  with  the  device  of  a tortoise/  and  were 
for  some  time  the  general  circulating  medium  in  all  states  of  Greece 
Proper.  The  early  electrum  coins  of  I^ydia  were  rude  oval  lumps  of 
metal,  stamped  on  one  side  only,  the  other  side  bearing,  like  most 
coins  of  the  archaic  period,  merely  the  impress  of  the  square-headed 
hammer  with  wliicli  they  were  struck  ; the  pattern  thereby  produced  is 
technically  known  as  an  ‘incuse’  (see  Plate  xciv..  Nos.  3,  7,  8). 

Tlie  expression  ‘ gold  and  silver,’  used  by  Herodotus  in  reference  to 
the  Lydian  coinage,  must  not  be  pressed ; for  the  style,  at  all  events,  of 
these  early  electrum  coins  forbids  us  to  date  them  later  than  the 
seventh  century  n.c.,  and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  they 
may  be  ascribed  to  the  time  when  the  new  Lydian  empire  was  founded 
by  Gyges.-  But  a regular  coinage  of  gold  and  silver  first  appears  in 
I^ydia  under  Croesus,  about  550  e.c.,  and  this  was  probably  the  first 
with  which  Greeks  in  other  districts  became  familiar.  Tlirough  the 
medium  of  the  Ionian  Greeks  it  had  already  spread  across  the  Aegean 
Sea,  first  to  Aegina  and  Euboea,  and  then  to  Corinth  and  Athens, 
where  Solon  struck  coins  at  the  time  of  his  measures  for  relieving 
financial  distress  (about  590  e.c.).  The  earliest  coins  of  Euboea  are 
hardly  less  primitive  than  those  of  Aegina,  and  those  of  Corinth  begin 
about  the  end  of  the  seventh  century.  Gradually  the  Greek  colonies 
in  the  west  and  south  adopted  the  new  system,  until,  by  the  end  of  the 
sixth  century,  all  the  important  Greek  states  possessed  a coinage,  and 
in  course  of  time  it  was  even  adopted  and  imitated  by  barbarian 
nations,  such  as  the  Gauls. 

The  materials  used  by  the  Greeks  for  their  coins  were  those  in  use 
at  the  present  day,  gold,  silver,  and  bronze,  with  the  addition  of 
electrum,  a natural  alloy  of  gold  and  silver.  The  first  two  metals  were 
generally  used  in  a very  pure  state,  the  gold  staters  of  Philip  and 
Alexander  of  INIacedou  containing  ninety-nine  per  cent,  of  the  pure 
metal,  and  the  tetradrachms  of  Athens  ninety-eight  per  cent,  of  silver, 
but  in  later  times  the  coinage  shows  a tendency  to  become  debased. 
Copper  was  always  more  or  less  alloyed  with  tin,  in  the  proportion  of 
about  sixteen  to  three  per  cent.  Electrum  was,  as  we  have  seen, 
abundant  in  Lydia,  and  was  for  a long  time  largely  used  in  the  East, 
as  at  Cyzicus  and  Lampsaeus;  but  in  Greece  Proper  it  was  soon  super- 
seded by  silver.  At  a later  date  it  was  revived  in  Sicily,  Southern 
Italy,  and  Carthage.  We  also  hear  of  lead  and  iron  coins,  but  their 
use  must  have  been  very  limited. 

1 See  Plate  xciv\,  No.  11. 

220 


2 Head,  Ilistoria  Numorum,  p.  544. 


PLA  IE  XCIV 


l-.(.  .\MA  M1N(JK.  5.  KM  nils. 


\K('HAI('  COIN'S  (7iO-|si(  ll.C.):  ASIA  MINOR  .\NI>  ( ; R I,  lA  !■. 

0.  I'CS.VUS.  7.  .\K.\Nniiis.  8.  IIIS.M,  I y.  IUi:i'.KS.  10.  .\llll'.NS.  11.  AI.i.INA.  IJ.  ynKI.NlH 


PLATE  XC\  ’ 


ARCH  \K'  COINS  ((ii)OOSn  l!.C.):  I'l'AIA'  AND  SICIIA' 

3.  KKKION.  4.  KAUl.OMA.  5.  TARK.VriM.  6.  I llK-lNA.  7.  I HL'KILM.  S.  CIKI.A. 
9.  SKI.INUS.  10.  KA  TANA.  I I.  SVRACL'SK 


I.  TOSKIIJONIA.  2.  MI-TI'ATONTUM. 


EARLY  COINS 

Ancient  coins  were  produced  by  two  processes  — casting  and 
stiinng,  but  the  former  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  early  Italian 
coins,  and  to  some  few  late  Greek  examples.  In  describing  the  pro- 
cesses, theiefore,  by  which  coins  were  made,  we  may  confine  ourselves 
almost  entirely  to  the  methods  of  striking.  These,  it  will  be  seen, 
differed  but  little  from  the  usages  of  the  present  day.  The  ordinary 
piocess  was  to  cast  the  metal  in  round  blank  ]>ieces  of  the  requisite 
shape  and  weight.  The  blank  was  then  laid  on  the  anvil,  into  whicli 
was  sunk  the  lower  die  (or  obverse),  and  was  hammered  from  above 
with  a bar,  on  the  end  of  which  was  placed  the  upper  die  (or  reverse). 

I he  weight  of  the  hammer  Avas  sufficient  to  effect  an  impression  on 
both  sides  of  the  metal.  The  dies,  which,  of  course,  Avere  engraA^ed 
like  gems  in  intaglio,  Avere  produced  by  a similar  process,  namely,  Avith 
a Avheel,  supplemented  by  a graving-tool  Avhich  smoothed  aAvay  the 
circular  sinkings  produced  by  the  former  instrument.  Being  made  of 
soft  metal,  they  Avere  naturally  not  very  lasting,  and  hence  it  is  rare  to 
find  tAvo  coins  from  the  same  die,  a bict  to  which  is  due  the  remarkable 
variety  of  design  in  ancient  coins. 

It  Avas  not  until  the  sixth  century  that  coins  Avere  stamped  on  both 
sides ; previously  the  incuse  square  Avas  thought  sufficient  for  the 
reverse,  sometimes  A^aried  by  diagonal  as  Avell  as  diametrical  cutting, 
Avhich  produced  a pattern  knoAvn  as  the  ‘ mill-sail.’  There  are,  hoAvever, 
exceptions  to  this  practice,  chiefly  found  in  Southern  Italy.  Here  the 
system  Avas  adopted  at  an  early  period  of  reproducing  the  obverse 
design  on  the  reverse,  but  in  intaglio  or  incuse  form ; this  Av^as,  of 
course,  done  by  cutting  it  in  relief  on  the  punch.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  the  object  of  this  process  AA^as  to  enable  the  coins  to  be 
packed  in  a pile,  Avhich  Avould  obviously  be  impossible  Avhere  both 
sides  Avere  in  relief ; but  there  are  objections  to  this  vieAv.  Or,  again, 
there  may  have  been  an  idea  of  conceiving  the  coin  (by  an  artistic 
convention)  as  transparent,  shoAving  the  design  of  one  side  through 
to  the  other. ^ Thus,  on  the  early  coins  of  Poseidonia  the  figure  of 
Poseidon  appears  on  one  side  to  the  right  in  relief,  on  the  other,  to 
the  left,  incised.^ 

The  earliest  coins  are  very  thick,  and  almost  lentoid  or  bean-shaped, 
and  little  effort  was  made  to  ensure  accuracy  in  the  form  of  the  coin  or 
the  position  of  the  design,  but  a change  soon  becomes  noticeable,  and  by 
the  fourth  century — Avhen  also  the  relief  tends  to  become  much  loAver 


^ See  Hill,  Greek  and  Roman  Colnn,  p.  152  ; also  id.,  Historical  Greek  Coins,  p.  23. 
2 Plate  xcv. , No.  1. 


ailEEK  COINS 


— the  type  is  placed  almost  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  metal.  But  in 
most  Greek  coins  these  indications  of  negligence  contrast  curiously  with 
the  prim  regularity  of  modern  specimens.  ^Vhen  the  coin  was  cast,  a 
model  was  prepared  from  which  moulds  were  made,  and  it  was  cast 
just  like  a bronze  object.  Specimens  of  coin-moulds  in  clay  are  in 
existence,  but  belong  to  the  period  of  the  Homan  Empire. 

The  coin-dies  were  not  always  engraved  by  inferior  artists.  In 
Magna  Graecia  and  Sicily,  on  some  of  the  very  finest  coins,  the  artist’s 
name  appears,  which  could  not  have  been  the  case  if  he  had  been  an 
ordinary  craftsman.  The  magnificent  Syracusan  decadrachms  and 
tetradrachms,  the  most  popular,  if  not  really  the  most  beautiful,  of 
all  ancient  coins,  with  the  liead  of  Persephone  wreathed  with  corn  on 
one  side  and  the  victorious  chariot  on  the  other,  bear  the  names  of 
Euainetos,  Kiinon,  and  other  artists.^  And  that  these  were  artists  of 
renown  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  their  names  appear  on  the  coins  of 
neighbouring  cities.  Euainetos  engraved  coins  for  Kamarina  and 
Katana,  and  there  is  a doubtful  instance  of  a Sicilian  artist  on  a coin  of 
Elis  in  the  Peloponnese.  On  the  coins  of  Greece  there  are  few 
instances  of  artists’  names,  but  there  is  a very  fine  tetradrachm  of 
Clazomenae  in  Asia  Minor,  with  a head  of  Apollo,  which  is  signed  by 
Theodotos;  and  a fine  coin  of  Kydonia,  in  Crete,  is  signed  by 
Neuantos.^ 

Other  inscriptions  of  various  kinds  are  found  on  coins  of  different 
periods  and  states,  but  to  a much  greater  extent  in  Roman  times  than 
at  a previous  epoch.  The  most  prevalent  form  of  inscription  is  that 
wdiich  may  be  said  to  set  the  mark  of  official  authority  on  the  coin,  that 
is,  the  name  of  the  people  or  person  by  whom  it  was  issued.  This 
usually  appears  in  the  genitive  case  as  "AKpdyavTos,  ‘ of  Akragas,’ 
XvpaKO(TLO)p,  ‘ of  the  Syracusans,’  after  which  we  understand  some  such 
word  as  vopucrpia,  ‘ coinage.’  Usually,  however,  the  name  is  more  or  less 
abbreviated,  as  ^ on  the  coins  of  Corinth,^  POM  on  those  of  Poseidonia. 
Two  unique  forms  of  inscription  are  the  much-discussed  ^dvos  ipl  cr^pa 
on  an  early  electrum  stater  from  Asia  JMinor  (usually,  but  impossibly, 
interpreted,  ‘I  am  the  sign,  or  token,  of  Phanes’),'^  and  the  Cretan 
formula  Topjvvos,  or  ^aicTTioiv,  to  nalpa,  found  in  the  fifth  century, 
where  Tralpa  means  ‘something  struck,’  and  so  ‘coin.’  In  the  third 


^ See  Hill,  Coins  of  Sicily,  p.  97  ff.  ; A.  Evans  in  Namism.  Chron.,  3rd  ser.  ii.  (1891),  p.  205  ff. ; 
and  Plate  xcvii.,  Nos.  8-10.  - See  Plate  xcix,,  No.  3. 

The  koppa,  here  represents  the  K of  other  Greek  dialects  ; similarly  the  M of  TOM  is  the 
Sun  or  Corinthian  form  of  2.  ^ Plate  xciv.,  No.  4. 

228 


INSCRIPTIONS  ON  COINS 

century  b.c.,  when  kings  began  to  issue  coinage  of  a more  personal 
character,  their  names  frequently  appear,  and  this  custom  was  almost 
invariable  in  Roman  imperial  times,  both  on  Roman  and  Greek  eoins. 
Certain  cities  made  use  of  special  titles  on  their  coins,  of  which  the 
best  instance  is  the  use  of  vecoKopo^  at  Ephesus  in  later  times.  We 
are  familiar  with  this  term  from  its  use  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  in 
connection  with  St.  Paul’s  experiences  in  that  city.^ 

There  is  also  a class  of  inscriptions  which  have  a special  archaeo- 
logical importance  as  naming  or  explaining  the  type.  These  may  be 
either  names  of  persons  and  personifications,  or  of  things.  Deified 
kings  or  emperors  are  styled  0ewp,  ‘ gods,’  as  Ptolemy  Soter  and 
Berenice  on  the  coins  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphos.  Homer’s  name  occurs 
on  coins  of  several  cities  in  Asia  JMinor,  and  Alcaeus  and  Sappho  on 
those  of  IMytilene.  Names  of  deities,  or  appropriate  epithets,  are  often 
of  speeial  importance  to  the  student  of  mythology  as  throwing  light  on 
partieiilar  eults,  as  in  the  case  of  Zeus  Eleutherios  on  coins  of  Syracuse, 
or  Persephone  Soteira  (‘  Saviour’)  on  those  of  Cyzicus.  River -gods  and 
other  personifications  are  frequently  named,  one  of  the  most  interesting 
instances  being  the  NtVa  (Victory)  on  early  fifth-century  coins  of  Terina. 
The  special  significance  of  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  cult  of  a distinct 
goddess  of  Victory  can  hardly  be  traced  at  an  earlier  date.  With  the 
Romans,  however,  the  practice  of  personification  almost  reached  to  a 
pitch  of  absurdity,  as  in  Annona  (Market  Prices)  and  Hilaritas  (Mirth). 

Inscriptions  which  have  reference  to  the  occasion  on  which  a coin 
was  issued  are  rare  before  Roman  times,  but  a remarkable  instance  is 
the  aO\a,  ‘ games,’  found  on  the  tetradrachms  of  Kimon  and  Euainetos 
at  Syracuse.  Names  of  boats  occur  on  the  third-century  coins  of 
Corcyra,  and  apparently  refer  to  victories  won  in  races  of  galleys.  It 
is  exceedingly  rare  to  find  on  Greek  coins  any  indication  of  their 
denomination,  although  this  was  sometimes  expressed  in  another  way. 
Thus  on  the  coins  of  Athens  an  ingenious  variation  of  the  type  enables 
us  to  distinguish  the  different  multiples  of  the  obol,  the  four-obol  piece 
having  two  owls  on  the  reverse,  the  three-obol  one  owl  to  the  front, 
the  two-obol  two  owls  with  one  head,  and  so  on.  Again,  among  the 
coins  of  Syracuse  the  drachma  has  a single  horseman,  the  double 
drachma  a rider  leading  a single  horse,  and  the  tetradraehm  a four- 
liorse  chariot.  Other  cities  indicate  the  drachma  by  a whole  animal, 
the  half-drachma  by  the  fore-part  of  one  only. 

^ xix'.  .‘35,  where  the  A.  V.  rendering  is  Svorshippers.’  The  litenil  rendering  is  ^temple- 
weepers.  ’ 


229 


GREEK  COINS 


It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  inscriptions  on  coins  afford 
extremely  valuable  evidence  for  dating  particular  specimens  or  deter- 
mining the  succession  of  a series.  They  are  not,  of  course,  the  only 
criterion  available  for  this  purpose ; as  already  noted,  style,  weight,  and 
subject  all  contribute  their  cpiota  of  evidence,  and  in  many  cases  are 
suflieient  assistance  to  the  numismatist  without  the  aid  of  inscriptions ; 
but  the  usefulness  of  the  latter  is  twofold,  depending  partly  on  the 
historical  information  they  afford,  partly  on  their  palaeographical 
character.  To  the  former  class  of  evidence  belong  all  personal  names 
and  other  historical  data,  such  as  the  name  Aetnael^  which  occurs  on  a 
unique  Sicilian  coin  (see  p.  287),  and  enables  us  to  attribute  it  to  the 
])eriod  li.c.  47(>-4Gl,  during  which  the  name  of  Aetna  was  borne  by  the 
town  of  Katana. 

The  palaeographical  evidence  of  coin-inscriptions  is  chiefly  of  value 
for  the  earlier  periods  of  Greek  coinage,  when  every  state  had  its  own 
])eculiar  alphabet,  passing  independently  through  a series  of  changes  ; 
after  the  fifth  century  the  adoption  of  the  Ionic  alphabet  became 
practically  universal,  and  such  changes  as  took  place  were  rather  in 
the  general  character  of  the  lettering  than  in  the  forms  of  particular 
letters.  To  take  a few  instances : at  Byzantium  a peculiar  form  of 
the  letter  B is  found  down  to  277  b.c.,  but  not  afterwards ; C for  r 
is  found  in  Sicily  down  to  440  b.c.  ; E is  regularly  found  in  the  West 
for  H down  to  about  425  b.c.^ 

The  types  on  Greek  coins  form  the  most  important  part  of  our 
subject,  from  their  many-sided  interest,  whether  regarded  from  the 
point  of  view  of  art,  or  from  that  of  mythology  or  history.  The 
gradual  development  which  may  be  observed  in  their  composition 
will  be  noted  subsequently  in  dealing  with  the  different  artistic  stages 
through  which  Greek  coinage  passed ; meanwhile  some  attention  must 
be  devoted  to  a general  consideration  of  their  significance,  and  of  the 
different  categories  into  which  they  fall. 

This  subject  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion  in  recent  years, 
turning  upon  the  question  whether  the  origin  and  significance  of  the 
types  are  to  be  sought  in  a religious  or  a commercial  idea.  The  writings 
of  some  scholars  betoken  a more  or  less  rigid  adherence  to  one  or  the 
other  theory,  but  probably,  as  is  so  frequently  the  case,  the  truth  lies 
lietween  the  two  extremes,  or  rather,  both  theories  contain  a measure 
of  truth.  A comparison  with  what  we  observe  in  other  branches  of 

^ Fuller  details  will  be  found  in  Hill’s  Ihmdbcok  of  Greek  and  Ixoman  Corns,  p.  209  ff. 

280 


PLATE  XCVl 


COINS  ()l  Till-:  I ll-Ill  ( l-,N'irK\  : ASIA  MINOR  AND  ORl-,l-,(  l-: 

I.  Il'ni-.sIS.  NIIII-.Nn.  ^-4.  I'N/Ill'S.  S.  Al-Mis.  6.  ,\K  AN  I Hds.  7.  AI-A.INV.  8.  ini-l'.l'.S  u-II.  };i,IS.  I'2. 


ii.Aii.  .vcr/i 


COINS  ( )l'  Sl(  I IN  : I I I III  ( 'K.\rc  R\ 

I,  \<  .IxK.I- \ II  \l.  2.  KXMAKINA.  (.  K\l  \\\  l.l(i\ll\l.  C \AVns.  7-10.  sNKAl'I  S1-: 


C0IN-TYPE8 

Greek  art  will  incline  ns  to  the  view  that  (apart  from  the  purely 
utilitaiian  pin  pose  to  Avliich  coins  were  of  necessity  put),  the  instinct 
of  the  eaily  Gieek  peoples  for  devoting  their  artistic  faculties  excln- 
si\xly  to  religions  ends  might  be  expected  to  act  similarly  in  regard  to 
coins.  And  thus,  tliough  the  coin  was  merely  a secular  object,  a 
token  issued  by  a civil  authority  for  commercial  use,  the  religious 
sense  of  the  Greeks  led  them  to  consecrate  the  coins  and  their  uses 
by  placing  them  under  the  protection  of  the  special  deity  of  the  city. 
It  has  even  been  suggested  that  originally  they  were  actually  struck 
in  temples  and  issued  by  the  priests,  the  types  being  subsequently 
preserved  when  the  civic  authorities  took  over  the  rights  of  coinage. 
On  the  other  hand  many  types  ap|)ear  at  first  sight  purely  secular, 
such  as  the  tunny-fish  whicli  we  find  at  Cyzicus,  the  ears  of  corn  which 
are  seen  on  the  coins  of  Metapontum,  or  the  silphium  on  those  of 
Cyrene.^  Doubtless  these  types  came  subsequently  to  possess  a com- 
mercial signification,  like  the  designs  on  the  postage-stamps  of  some 
modern  states,  but  it  can  hardlv  be  questioned  that  in  their  origin 
all  such  types  were  religious,  and  that  they  stand,  by  an  unconscious 
or  intentional  symbolism,  for  the  god  with  whom  the  inhabitants 
associated  their  industries.  Such  we  may  well  believe  to  have  been 
the  case  with  types  like  the  wine-cup  on  the  coins  of  Naxos,  an  island 
associated  with  the  cult  of  Dionysos,  and  also  a great  wine-producing 
centre.  It  was  entirely  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  Greek  art  to 
use  symbolism  of  this  kind  for  their  deities,  without  any  inner  meaning 
such  as  mediaeval  or  modern  symbolism  connotes,  but  merely  as  a kind 
of  artistic  ‘ short-hand,’  or  as  the  Egyptians  used  their  hieroglyplis. 

In  discussing  the  various  classes  into  which  the  tyj)es  fall,  we  may 
first  touch  upon  those  that  are  obviously  purely  religious : figures  or 
symbols  of  deities,  mythological  subjects,  or  personifications  such  as 
river-gods  or  water-nymphs.  Of  this  class  are  the  coins  of  Athens, 
which  bear  on  the  one  side  the  head  of  Athena,  on  the  other  her 
symbols,  the  owl  and  olive-branch ; variations  from  this  type  occur  in 
later  times,  as  when,  in  the  second  century  b.c.,  an  amphora  is  intro- 
duced under  the  owl,  probably  an  oil-amphora  containing  oil  from  her 
sacred  olive;  or  again  when  (in  Homan  imperial  times)  a miniature 
representation  of  the  Acropolis  with  the  Parthenon  and  other  erections 
appears  on  the  reverse.^  The  coins  of  Corinth  bear  almost  invariably 
a figure  of  Pegasos  on  the  obverse,  with  reference  to  the  story  of 

^ See  Plate  xcv.,  No.  2 ; Plate  xcix, , No.  12. 

^ See  Plate  xcvi.,  No.  2 ; Plate  ci.,  Nos.  G,  9. 

281 


GREEK  COINS 


Belleroplion,  wlio  was  a local  liero,  while  the  reverse  usually  has  a head 
of  Athena,  of  a different  type  from  that  which  is  seen  on  the  coins  of 
Athensd  Those  of  the  city  of  Rhodes  (founded  in  408  n.c.)  have  on 
the  obverse  the  head  of  the  Sun-God  Helios,  its  tutelary  deity,  whose 
statue  was  subsecpiently  set  up  in  the  harbour  (see  above,  p.  132).“ 
Several  of  the  Sicilian  coin-types,  such  as  those  of  Kamarina,  come 
under  this  category ; at  this  place  we  see  an  extremely  beautiful  figure 
of  a water-nymph  personifying  the  city  ; at  Gel  a a man-headed  bull 
signifies  the  river  god  Gelas.^  The  coin-types  of  Kroton  in  iMagna  Graecia 
have  been  observed  to  have  reference  to  the  religious  ideas  of  Pytha- 
goras, for  whose  teaching  that  city  was  the  great  centre  ; ^ they  include 
a tripod,  which  almost  invariably  occurs  on  obverse  or  reverse,  an 
eagle,  figures  of  Herakles,  and  heads  of  Apollo  and  of  the  local 
goddess  Hera  Lakinia.  The  beautiful  coins  of  Terina  in  the  same 
region  bear  on  the  obverse  the  head  of  a nymph  personifying  the  place, 
on  the  reverse  a figure  of  Victory.^ 

Other  types  again  represent  the  issuing  authority,  like  the  later 
Greek  coins  with  portrait-heads  of  the  kings  of  JMacedon  and  their 
successors  or  local  activities,  these  falling  under  the  head  of  what  are 
known  as  agonistic  types.'  The  latter  at  first  sight  seem  to  be  an 
exception  to  the  rule  of  religious  types,  and  this  is  indeed  probably 
the  case ; but  inasmuch  as  all  Greek  games  partook  of  a religious 
nature,  the  representation  of  a victorious  athlete  or  chariot  might  have 
been  symbolical  of  the  god  in  whose  honour  the  games  were  celebrated. 
The  most  noteworthy  examples  of  agonistic  types  are  the  fine  series 
of  later  Tarentine  coins  (400-330  b.c.)  and  the  magnificent  Syraeusan 
coins  of  all  periods.  In  the  former  a horseman  is  usually  represented, 
or  a man  or  boy  crowning  a victorious  horse,  or  himself  crowned  by 
Victory.  At  Syracuse  the  chariot  is  found  even  on  the  earliest  (sixth 
century)  coins,  at  first  at  rest  or  moving  slowly,  afterwards  galloping 
at  full  speed,  with  ^^ictory  hovering  above,  holding  a wreath.®  The 
horses  on  the  coins  of  Thessaly  are  similarly  emblematic  of  local 
activities. 

Others  again  allude  to  local  characteristics,  such  as  the  silphium 
(asafoetida)  of  Gyrene,  the  corn  of  Metapontum,  the  wild  celery  of 
Selinus,  or  the  wine-cup  of  Naxos.^  It  has  already  been  pointed  out 


1 Plate  xcviii..  No.  8.  ^ Plates  xcviir.,  No.  1 ; c.  No.  1). 

^ Plates  xcv.,  No.  8 ; xcvn. , No.  2.  See  Head,  Ilistona  Nu))iortnn,  p.  84. 

^ Plates  xcv.,  No.  G;  xcix.,  No.  G.  Plates  xcviii..  No.  7 ; c.,  Nos.  1 ff. 

" On  agonistic  types,  see  generally  Newton,  E^sai/s  on  Art,  p.  420. 

® See  Plate  xcvii..  Nos.  7-10.  ^ Plates  xcv..  Nos.  2,  1);  xcvii.,  No.  G ; xcix..  No.  12. 

232 


AGONISTIC  AND  ALLUSIVE  TYPES 

that  a purely  commercial  significance  cannot  be  claimed  for  such  types, 
inasmuch  as,  for  instance,  the  ear  of  corn  may  well  stand  for  Demeter, 
the  wine-cup  for  Dionysos,  and  so  on.  Some  types  (known  as  types 
parlants)  suggest  modern  canting  heraldry,  being  puns  on  the  names  of 
places.  riuis  at  Phocaea  we  find  a seal  ((fjcoKy),  at  Ilhodes  a rose  (poSov), 
at  JNIelos  an  apple  (pyjXor),  and  the  celery  (creXivov)  of  Selinus  comes 
under  the  same  category.  Here  again  it  is  inconceivable  that  a Greek 
deliberately  selected  a badge  as  the  modiQxw  parvenu  selects  his  crest 
or  coat-of-arms,  and  the  ado])tion  of  such  appropriate  devices  was 
rather  due  to  a kind  of  natural  selection,  or  to  the  fact  that  the  device 
had  an  older  association  with  the  locality  than  even  its  name.  Lastly 
there  are  the  historical  or  quasi-historical  subjects,  such  as  Taras,  the 
founder  of  Tarentum,  who  appears  on  the  coins  of  that  city  riding  on 
a dolphin,  or  the  coins  of  Demetrius  Poliorketes,  with  Victory  on  a 
prow  blowing  a trumpet,  in  reference  to  his  naval  victory  (see  p.  135).^ 

AVe  do  not  as  a rule  find  works  of  art  reproduced  in  coin-types 
of  a good  period,  though  attempts  to  imitate  famous  statues  might 
have  been  expected.  Even  the  head  of  Zeus  on  the  beautiful  coins 
of  Elis“  is  not  certainly  influenced  by  the  statue  by  Pheidias.  But  the 
Greek  artist  could  never  be  a slavish  copyist,  and  to  his  capacity  for 
infinite  variety  was  also  added  an  instinctive  feeling  that  sculptures 
on  a large  scale  were  ill  adapted  for  coin-types.  At  a later  date  this 
was  not  the  case,  and  when  we  come  to  the  Greek  Imperial  coins, 
struck  under  the  Roman  Emperors,  we  find  reproductions  of  old  cult- 
statues  and  other  works  of  art  bv  no  means  uncommon.  Thus  the 
Ephesian  Artemis  appears  on  coins  of  Ephesus,  the  Praxitelean 
Aphrodite  on  those  of  Knidos,  while  the  coins  of  Elis  struck  in  the 
time  of  Hadrian  bear  a fairly  close  reproduction  of  the  famous  Zeus  of 
Pheidias.^  These  late  coins,  though  very  unattractive  in  appearance, 
are  often  most  useful  for  throwing  light  on  earlier  coins  or  on  religious 
festivals  and  ceremonies,  as  well  as  for  the  hints  which  they  give  as 
to  the  appearance  of  lost  works  of  art. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  add  here  a few  notes  on  the  general 
character  of  the  coins  of  different  regions  ; and  it  may  further  serve 
a useful  purpose  in  each  case  to  take  examples  from  the  successive 
coinages  of  particular  states  or  cities,  a method  by  means  of  which  the 
choice  of  coin-types  may  be  further  illustrated  and  explained. 

* Plates  xcv..  No.  .5  ; c.,  No.  8.  Plate  xcvi.,  Nos.  9-11. 

2 Plate  ci.,  No.  18, 

233 


GREEK  COINS 


Observing  the  geographical  order  usually  adopted  by  writers  on 
the  subject,  we  begin  with  Italy,  or  rather  with  Magna  Graecia,  the 
great  Greek  colonies  in  the  south  of  the  Peninsula,  with  which  so 
many  of  the  most  beautiful  series  of  coins  are  associated.  One 
important  difference  between  the  Greek  coinages  of  the  western  and 
tlie  eastern  JMediterranean  is  that  the  former  mostly  cover  a shorter 
period  of  history,  beginning  later,  and  brought  to  an  earlier  close  by 
the  successiv^e  conquests  of  Carthaginians  and  Romans.  They  are 
therefore  more  generally  useful  as  illustrating  the  earlier  and  best 
])eriods  of  Greek  art.  And  further,  owing  to  the  rapid  development  of 
these  Greek  colonies,  they  show  in  many  respects  an  artistic  advance 
on  the  contemporary  coins  of  the  East.  Thusj  while  Asiatic  Greeks 
were  still  using  mere  lumps  of  metal  roughly  stamped,  and  for  a long 
time  were  content  with  only  the  incuse  square  on  the  reverses  of  their 
coins,  in  the  west  the  double  types  prevailed  with  one  or  two  excep- 
tions from  the  first ; tentatively,  it  is  true,  for,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  227), 
the  sixth-century  coins  have  on  their  reverses  only  an  incuse  version 
of  the  obverse  types  ; but  by  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  reverse 
types  in  relief  were  firmly  established.  In  many  of  the  towms  we  find 
it  the  practice  to  honour  the  special  local  deity,  and  therefore  Poseidon 
appears  at  Poseidonia,  Apollo  at  Kaulonia,  Hera  Lakinia  at  Kroton, 
and  the  local  hero  Taras  at  Tarentum.  Sometimes  the  types  of  two 
cities  are  combined  on  one  coin,  betokening  an  alliance. 

Among  particular  cities  Tarentum  was  the  most  important — it  is 
the  only  one  with  any  extensive  gold  currency — and  its  coinage  is 
certainly  one  of  the  most  interesting.^  From  530  to  500  the  types  are 
Taras  on  a dolphin  or  a figure  of  Apollo,  the  reverse  having  as  yet 
only  the  incuse  square.  During  the  fifth  century  the  Taras  type  is 
almost  paramount,  sometimes  varied  by  a cockleshell ; on  the  obverse, 
tiie  types  are  considerably  varied,  including  a wheel,  sea-horse,  an 
archaic  male  head  (perhaps  Taras),  and  a later  female  head,  a dolphin,  or 
a seated  figure  of  Taras.  In  the  fourth  century  Taras  is  relegated  to 
the  reverse,  but  is  by  no  means  universal  there  ; meanwhile  an  entirely 
new  type  is  adopted  for  the  obverse,  of  the  agonistic  kind  (see  p.  232)  : 
a horseman  walking  or  in  rapid  motion,  or  crowned  by  Victory,  or  a 
rider  crowning  his  own  horse.  A head  of  Apollo,  Herakles  or  a 
goddess  is  also  found.  At  Metapontum  the  ear  of  corn,  which  may 
be  either  a symbol  of  Demeter  or  a commercial  badge,  appears  at 
first  (550-400)  on  the  obverse,  then  on  the  reverse  (400-300).^  The 

^ See  Plates  xcv.,  No.  5;  xcix..  No.  .5.  ^ Plates'xcv.,lNo.  2;  xcix.,  No.  7. 

234 


PLATE  A'Cri/1 


COINS  Ol'  lOl'k  l ll  : am  \ minor  and  (.RIM'A  k 

r.  K'lloDI'.S.  J.  CI.AZi 'M  (■-.N  A I'.  3.  I , M I'S  A t' I S.  4.  A \l  I ' 1 1 I I'ol , I S.  3.  AICNuS.  t1.  I H \ I A 1 1 ) I c I- . 7.  I'lmil’  (M  MUII)(i\. 

8.  ciiKiNi  ii.  u.  Ai3r  \m\.  lo.  \i  ii \i-  \\  i.i.ac.i  r 


PLATL  XCL\ 


cnixs  or  lOl'kTII  ( KN'I  rm' : ( UI  IK  \M»  \\  | s ||.,k\  C.RI-  I.X  K 


1.  k.\i>ss(i>.  L’.  rii.\i-;sT(is.  K^  i)(>\l.\.  4.  s\  r.iv'i  l A,  5.  i aioaia  m.  6.  i iokm.na.  7.  m 1: 1 \ro\  1 am.  S.  iiiAv' ak i.i'.i a. 

I'WDOSIA.  10.  I III  l■:ll  ,M.  I T.  S^  KAl  I si;.  12.  lA’KIAE 


COINS  OF  MAGNA  GEAECIA 

coins  of  Poseidonia,  which  only  extend  from  550  to  400,  usually  have 
the  figure  of  Poseidon  on  the  obverse,  wliich  down  to  480  appears  in 
incuse  on  the  other  side  ; ^ it  is  then  replaced  by  a bull.  Those  of 
Kroton  have  been  shown  to  bear  some  reference  to  the  tenets  of 
Fyth  agoras  who  was  a resident  in  that  city;  the  obverse  has  at  first  a 
tripod,  then  (after  420)  a head  of  Herakles,  Apollo,  or  Hera  Lakinia ; 
the  reverse  a tripod  or  a figure  of  Herakles.  The  coins  of  Terina  and 
Ihurium  are  more  remarkable  for  their  artistic  beauty  than  for  their 
subjects,  but  the  latter  are  interesting  from  their  reverse  design  of  a 
bull,  at  first  walking,  then  rushing  forward  or  butting.^  The  town  was 
founded  in  443  in  succession  to  the  destroyed  Sybaris,  and  it  is  thought 
that  the  bull  may  represent  the  river  Krathis  associated  with  the  older 
town.  Incidentally  it  may  be  noted  that  the  fine  series  of  Thurian 
coins  shows  how  the  Attic  types  might  have  developed,  if  they  had 
not  adhered  to  tradition ; Thurium  was  an  Athenian  colony.  At 
Terina  we  find  almost  consistently  the  head  of  the  eponymous  nymph 
on  the  one  side  and  a figure  of  Nike  (Victory)  on  the  other  ; it  is  worth 
noting  that  on  the  earliest  examples  the  Nike  is  not  winged. 

iMost  of  what  has  already  been  said  of  Italian  coins  in  general 
will  apply  also  to  those  of  Sicily  ; but  an  additional  and  interesting 
feature  of  the  latter  is  a tendency  to  symbolise  local  features.  At 
Syracuse  the  goddess’s  head  surrounded  by  dolphins  doubtless  suggested 
the  sea-girt  Ortygia ; at  Thermae  the  hot  springs  were  indicated  by 
water  flowing  through  a lion’s  mouth  ; and  similarly  the  abundant 
celery  of  the  neighbourhood  became  the  type  of  Selimis,  and  the 
curved  shape  of  the  harbour  accounts  for  the  sickle  on  the  coins  of 
Zankle  (Messana). 

In  turning  to  individual  coinages,  the  famous  Syracusan  series 
naturally  first  demand  our  attention.^  The  following  are  the  principal 
types  down  to  280  b.c.  : — 


Before  500. 

Obv.  .Slow-moving  chariot. 

Horseman  with  second  horse. 

500-478. 

Female  head  and  dolphins. 

480-415. 

Head  of  Nymph. 

415-405. 

Head  of  Herakles  or  Athena  (gold). 

Rev.  Incuse  square  at  first 
alone,  then  with 
head  in  centre. 

Chariot  with  Nike. 
Horseman. 

Chariot  with  Nike. 

Female  head  or  wheel 
in  incuse  square. 


1 Plate  .\cv.  , No.  1.  • Plates  xcv.,  Nos.  (>,  7 ; xcix..  Nos.  0,  10. 

^ See  Plates  xcv.,  No.  11 ; xcvii.,  Nos.  7-10;  xcix..  No.  11  ; c..  No.  11. 

235 


a REEK  COINS 


■n  5-360. 


^()0-3l7. 

317-289. 


Head  of  Persephone  (decadrachms), 
with  corn  and  dolphins  (l)y 
Euainetos). 

Head  of  Arethiisa  with  dolphins 
(decadrachms  by  Kimon). 

Head  of  Arethiisa  to  front  (by 
Kimon). 

Head  of  Athena  (by  Eukleidas). 

Head  of  Apollo  (electrmn). 

Head  of  Zens  or  Athena  (silver). 

Head  of  Arethiisa  (silver). 

Head  of  Persephone. 


Chariot  and  Nike. 


Chariot  and  Nike. 
Chariot  as  before. 


Head  of  Artemis. 
Pegasos. 

Horseman. 

Chariot,  Horseman,  etc. 


The  more  archaic  coins  can  be  dated  by  that  known  as  the 
Demareteion,  struck  by  Gelon  i.  after  his  victory  over  the  Cartha- 
ginians in  479  ; the  introduction  (probably  by  Dion)  of  the  Corinthian 
types  (Atliena  and  Pegasos,  cf.  p.  231)  denotes  the  restoration  of  the 
democracy  by  Timoleon ; and  the  coins  from  317  to  289  can  be 
dated  by  the  names  of  tyrants.  Syracuse  is  almost  alone  among 
Sicilian  cities  in  possessing  a coinage  of  the  decadent  period,  the 
others  having  suffered  largely  from  the  Carthaginian  invasion,  of 
409-396  B.C.,  or  from  subsequent  catastrophes.  The  historical  data 
here  are,  as  Sir  Charles  Newton  says,  especially  valuable  as  enabling 
us  ‘ to  trace  the  steps  by  which  this  art  passed  out  of  archaic  constraint 
and  gauc/ierie  into  noble  simplicity  and  grace ; we  see  how  the  lines 
of  the  composition  become  gradually  more  flowing  and  the  repre- 
sentation of  organic  form  and  living  action  more  subtle  and 
intelligent.’  ^ 

From  an  artistic  point  of  view  the  coins  of  Akragas  or  Agrigentum 
are  hardly  inferior  to  those  of  Syracuse ; but  they  show  less  variety 
of  types.  From  550  to  415  an  eagle  appears  on  the  obverse,  a crab 
on  the  reverse  ; during  the  next  decade  the  prosperity  of  the  city 
is  indicated  by  the  splendid  decadrachm,  which  has  for  its  obverse 
type  two  eagles  destroying  a hare,  for  the  reverse  a chariot  with 
Victory  or  a man  as  driver  ; ^ variations  occur  with  one  eagle  destroying 
a hare  or  serpent,  the  crab  being  retained  for  the  reverse.  In  406 
the  city  was  destroyed,  and  when  the  coins  begin  again  in  340  it  is 
with  a greater  variety  of  types,  heads  of  Zeus  and  the  local  deity 
Akragas  appearing  on  the  obverses,  while  the  eagle  and  hare  type  is 
relegated  to  the  reverse. 

The  coins  of  Kamarina  are  not  specially  remarkable  except  during 

1 A’sw/jy.v  on  Art,  p.  417.  “ Plate  xcvii.,  No.  1. 


236 


COINS  OF  SICILY  AND  GREECE 

the  fiftli  century  (461-405)  when  some  very  beautiful  types  occur, 
including  the  horned  head  of  the  river-god  Hipparis  and  the  water- 
nymph  Kamarina,  floating  over  a lake  on  a swan/  At  Gela  the  usual 
obverse  type  down  to  415  is  a chariot,  sometimes  with  Victory  as 
driver,  the  reverse  showing  a bull  or  the  fore-part  of  one,  subsequently 
replaced  by  a horned  head  of  the  eponymous  hero,  Gelas  in  405  the 
city  was  destroyed.  The  types  of  Messana  (Zankle)  are  more  varied 
than  those  of  any  other  Sicilian  city ; at  Katana  an  interesting  and 
unique  coin  appears  in  476-461  b.c.  with  the  name  of  the  Aetneans, 
and  a figure  of  Zeus  of  Aetna  (see  above,  p.  230).^  It  has  reference  to 
the  change  of  name  of  the  city  during  that  period,  while  it  was  subject 
to  Hiero  of  Syracuse. 

In  Greece  proper  and  the  islands  the  coinages,  speaking  generally, 
do  not  reach  the  high  artistic  level  of  Sicily  and  Magna  Graecia ; there 
are,  however,  several  series  of  special  beauty  or  interest.  To  the 
former  category  belong  the  coins  of  Elis,  with  the  eagle  and  hare  type, 
recalling  the  fine  Akragas  coin,  and  the  head  of  Zeus  and  the  Victory 
on  a pedestal,  which  were  probably  suggested  by  the  well-known 
statues  at  Olympia  (pp.  97,  108)  also  those  of  Gortyna  in  Crete  with 
the  remarkable  type  of  Europa  seated  in  a tree  with  Zeus  in  the  form 
of  an  eagle,  the  bull,  with  or  without  Europa,  appearing  on  the 
reverse.^  Among  the  coinages  which  are  interesting  in  other  ways 
may  be  mentioned  that  of  Eoeotia.^  Here  we  have  a feature  unique 
in  Greek  numismatic  history,  the  use  of  the  typical  Boeotian  shield 
by  all  the  towns  in  that  state,  which  indicates  the  federal  or  Amphic- 
tyonic  league  under  which  all  were  united.  This  federal  currency 
lasted  from  660  to  447  b.c.,  when  Thebes  monopolised  the  right  of 
coining  and  produced  a series  of  staters  of  great  artistic  merit,  with 
various  Herakles  types,  recalling  in  style  the  Barthenon  metopes. 
The  shield  type  was  revived  in  426,  with  an  amphora  or  trident  for  the 
reverse ; in  the  Hellenistic  age  the  god  Poseidon  himself  appears  in 
place  of  his  emblem.  The  coin-types  of  Athens  and  Corinth  ha\  e 
already  been  described.  Other  interesting  types  are  those  of  Knossos 
in  Crete,  where  a maze  or  conventional  representation  of  the  labyrinth 
of  INIinos  forms  the  reverse  design  throughout  the  series  ; in  the  earlier 
examples  the  head  of  Theseus  occurs  in  the  centre,  subsequently  that 
of  the  JMinotaur.  The  labyrinth  itself  varies  in  form  from  square  to 

^ Plate  xcvii..  No.  2.  ^ Plate  xcv.,  No.  8.  Plate  xcvii.,  No.  4. 

^ See  Head,  Historin  Numorum,  p.  f355,  and  Plate  xcvi..  Nos.  J)-ll. 

I’late  XCVI.,  No.  12.  “ Plates  xciv..  No.  ; xcvi..  No.  8. 


237 


GREEK  COINS 


round,  and  about  200  n.c.,  when  an  alliance  with  Athens  is  betokened 
by  the  adoption  of  the  head  of  Athena  and  the  owl  on  an  amphora, 
appears  only  as  an  adjunct  in  the  field/ 

In  Asia  Minor,  as  already  noted,  the  chief  feature  is  the  retention 
of  the  incuse  scpiare  on  the  reverse  down  to  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century,  though  in  some  cases  the  design  is  varied  by  the  introduction 
of  some  emblem  in  tlie  centre.  The  coins  of  Clazomenae  are  usually 
regarded  as  reaching  a high  artistic  level,  and  tliose  of  Ephesus  are 
mythologically  interesting,  though  the  head  of  Artemis  which  occurs 
after  300  n.c.  is  of  the  Greek  type,  and  the  local  ‘Diana  of  the 
Ephesians’  is  not  found  before  the  Roman  period.“  The  staters  of 
Cyzicus  play  an  important  part  in  the  history  of  numismatics,  but 
their  types  are  too  varied  to  enumerate  in  detail ; ^ a similarly  fine  series 
was  issued  by  Lampsacus  in  the  fourth  century,  on  which  the  reverse 
type  is  the  fore-part  of  a winged  horse,  the  obverse  a Victory  sacri- 
ficing a ram  or  erecting  a trophy,  Helle  on  the  ram,  the  Cabeiri, 
a head  of  Zeus  or  Actaeon.  Some  of  the  finest  of  all  Greek  coins 
were  produced  by  the  cities  on  the  north  coast  of  the  Aegean,  as 
Amphlpolis  and  Olynthos.^ 

Numismatists  are  generally  agreed  in  classifying  Greek  coins 
chronologically  in  seven  periods,  a brief  account  of  which  may  serve 
to  indicate  their  development  and  decadence  from  a purely  artistic 
standpoint. 


I.  700-480  B.c.  The  Period  of  Archaic  Art,  from  the  invention 
of  coinage  down  to  the  Persian  wars. 

In  the  course  of  these  two  centuries  we  may  observe  a gradual 
development  from  extreme  rudeness  to  clear  defined  forms  characterised 
by  a delicacy  and  strength  which  we  do  not  even  find  in  the  fully- 
developed  art  of  a later  stage.  But  like  all  archaic  work  it  is  through- 
out marked  by  a stiffness  and  angularity  which  show  that  the  artist 
has  not  yet  attained  mastery  over  his  tools.  The  coin-types  mostly 
take  the  form  of  animals  or  their  heads,  and  their  chief  characteristic 
is  the  ingenuity  shown  in  adapting  the  design  to  the  space  available 
(as  on  the  contemporary  gems,  p.  211),  so  as  to  cov-er  the  whole  field. 


^ Plates  xcix.,  No.  1 ; ci.,  No.  G. 

2 See  Plates  xcviii.,  No.  2 ; xcvi..  No.  1. 

^ See  Plate  xcvi. , Nos.  G,  4,  ami  for  details  Head,  op,  cit.,  p.  451  ff. 
Plates  XCVI.,  Nos.  5,  G;  xcviii..  Nos.  4-G. 


238 


PLATE  ( 


( ( H \>  ( )l  I II  I 1 1 l-.U.KMM  K n-  K l(  »l  I 

I,  j.  A M- X A N I Mil,  (iKi'Ai.  di- \i  i-.  i icn  >s  n u.h  >kk  !■  i i-x-.  ismmalii<is.  5.  \ 1 k .i  v.\(  is.  o.  a \ 1 1 \i  \i  ii<  is. 

7.  .U.I.X  ,\ \ I ll-.K  111-  l-.l'llvl  S.  8.  |•|■,l.:s|•  I s III  ,M  MIDI  IN.  9.  NIHiDI-s.  1 . 1,  llll-KSl  ill  SUIIA.  M.  S^K■.M.^SK 


PLATE  Cl 


COINS  OK  inh  I ;k.\I'X'o-rom \N  i’i;kioh 

I.  ni  \ KN  ACKS.  j.  KIHIDI-.S.  3.  1 )Ki  >1' 1 1 !■.  K MA.  4.  K IS  I 1 >1' 1 1 ( >K(iS.  5.  I I'IN  )■:  I )i  )S.  6.  KNOSSds.  7.  IK.KAM-S.  S.  LAVICLS. 

y.  Aim:\s.  10.  Ml  I HI^ADAIKS.  II.  Mil, I-.  MS.  12.  K I' I IKSL'S.  I IM.IS 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  COINS 

Heraldic  groupings  of  animals  and  figures  running  (but  in  an  attitude 
which  looks  like  kneeling)  are  common ; the  animal  types,  however,  are 
the  commoner,  in  accordance  with  the  universal  law  of  early  Greek  art. 
Monsters  are  also  frequently  found,  and  when  the  human  figure  is 
introduced,  it  is  more  often  entire  than  the  head  alone.  Tlie  latter, 
when  it  occurs,  is  always  in  profile,  engraved  with  both  corners  of  the 
eye  visible,  as  if  seen  from  the  front.  The  hair  is  indicated  by  minute 
dots,  and  the  moutli  wears  the  usual  archaic  smile.  It  mav  also  be 
noted  that  decorative  borders  and  ornaments  filling  the  field,  as  on 
the  early  painted  vases,  are  not  uncommon.  Throughout,  the  treat- 
ment may  be  described  as  primitive ; yet  towards  the  close  of  the 
period  the  great  advance  made  is  unmistakable.  As  has  already  been 
noted,  there  is  seldom  at  first  any  design  on  the  reverse  except  the 
incuse  square ; but  the  coins  of  Sicily  and  Magna  Graecia  usually  form 
an  exception  to  this  rule. 

II.  480-415  n.c.  7Vie  Period  of  T'ransitioiKd  Art,  from  the 
Persian  Wars  to  the  Athenian  expedition  against  Sicily. 

AYith  the  fifth  century  begins  an  enormous  advance  in  the  technical 
skill  of  the  engraver.  The  rude  incuse  square  is  superseded,  if  not  by 
a figure,  at  any  rate  by  a more  elaborate  form  of  square  containing 
a device  or  divided  in  some  form  of  pattern  (as  on  the  coins  of 
Akanthos),^  and  in  many  cases  the  abbreviated  name  of  the  city  or 
magistrate  appears.  The  incuse  square  is  retained  longest  in  Asia 
IMinor.  In  regard  to  style  the  archaic  refinement  at  first  even 
increases,  and  the  Greek  conception  of  grace  or  becomes, 

as  in  contemporary  sculpture,  the  guiding  principle.  Subsequently  it 
gives  way  to  a severe  simplicity,  and  a largeness  and  freedom  of  treat- 
ment which  are  doubtless  the  result  of  Pheidian  influence.  Yet  we 
do  not  find  this  advance,  strange  to  say,  on  the  coins  of  Athens  itself, 
for  tiie  reason  already  noted,  that  on  religious  grounds  a rigid  adherence 
to  the  old  style  and  type  was  observed,  as  in  the  prize-vases.^  Gener- 
ally speaking,  details  are  rendered  with  wonderful  delicacy  and  with 
a growing  capacity  for  the  understanding  of  tlie  anatomical  structure 
of  the  human  body  (as  may  be  seen  in  the  Seilenos  on  the  coins  of 
of  the  Sicilian  Naxos ),^  also  for  greater  freedom  of  movement.  The 
human  head  now  first  becomes  general,  and  was  probably  found  to  be 

1 Plates  xciv.,  No.  7 ; xcvi.,  No.  (5. 

2 ILit  the  reason  was  also  partly  commercial;  these  coins  circulated  very  widely  on  the 

borders  of  civilisation.  ^ Plate  xcvii.,  No.  0. 


GREEK  COINS 


ii  very  convenient  design  for  the  circular  space ; it  is  still,  however, 
generally  rendered  in  profile.  Some  of  the  finest  coin-types  of  Sicily 
and  Magna  (iraeeia  belong  to  this  period,  notably  those  of  Tlmrium, 
Syracuse,  and  ^Vgrigentiim  (the  type  with  two  eagles  seizing  a hare). 

III.  415-836  JEC.  The  Period  of  Finest  A?d,  from  the  Sicilian 
Expedition  to  the  accession  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

The  euhninating  period  is  reached  about  400  b.c.,  when  the  art 
of  coin -engraving  attained  the  highest  pitch  of  excellence  it  has  ever 
known  in  ancient  or  modern  times.  The  severe  simplicity  of  the 
preceding  century  gives  way  to  a softer,  but  still  ideal  and  dignified 
treatment,  and  this  high  level  is  still  maintained  down  to  about 
350  B.c.  The  types  are  characterised,  says  Mr.  Head,  ‘by  intensity 
of  action,  perfect  symmetry  of  2)roportion,  elegance  of  composition, 
finish  of  execution,  and  richness  of  ornamentation.’  Among  new 
developments  the  facing  head  is  now  seen  for  the  first  time,  and  there 
are  fine  examples  at  Clazomenae  (Apollo),  Rliodes  (Helios),  Amphi- 
polis,  Ainos  in  Thrace  (Hermes),  Larissa,  Pandosia  (Hera  Lakinia), 
Syracuse  (Arethusa  and  Athena),  and  Cyrene  (Zeus  Ammon).^ 
xVmong  fine  reverse  designs  may  be  noted  the  Herakles  at  Kroton 
and  the  seated  Pan  of  Arcadia.^  A tendency  to  realism  and  pictur- 
esqueness is  also  to  be  observed  in  many  types,  as  in  those  of 
Agrigentum,  and  the  remarkable  coins  of  Gortyna,  which  represent 
Europa  seated  in  a tree  with  Zeus  in  the  form  of  an  eagle  (not  a bull). 
But  the  most  celebrated  coins  of  the  time  are  the  great  silver 
Syracusan  decadrachms  and  tetradrachms,  engraved  by  Kimon  and 
Euainetos,  even  if  for  real  artistic  beauty  they  are  excelled  by  other 
coinages,  sucli  as  that  of  Terina.  To  this  period  belong  nearly  all  the 
existing  artists’  signatures,  implying,  when  they  occur,  that  the  coins 
were  engraved  by  craftsmen  of  high  repute. 

IV.  336-280  B.c.  The  Period  of  Later  Fine  Art,  from  the  acces- 
sion of  Alexander  to  the  death  of  Lysimachos. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  this  period  is  the  appearance  of  portrait- 
heads  of  rulers  on  the  coins,  from  Alexander  onward,  due  to  the 
])olitical  changes  which  destroyed  many  of  the  autonomous  states 
and  caused  the  centralising  of  art  in  the  large  cities.  The  portraits 
are  usually  idealised,  but  full  of  individual  force  and  character ; there 
is,  however,  in  the  purely  ideal  heads  a growing  tendency  to  weakness. 

^ See  Plate  xcviii.,  Nos.  1,  2,  4,  etc.  ^ md.,  No.  9. 

240 


LATER  GREEK  COINS 


Some  of  these  heads  are  remarkable  for  their  expression  of  feeling. 
In  the  human  figures  on  the  reverses  the  all-pervading  influence  of 
Lysippos  is  often  to  be  marked.  The  most  frequent  reverse  type  is 
a seated  figure,  the  aspect  and  pose  of  which  are  borrowed  from  the 
Zeus  with  eagle  on  Alexander’s  coins ; examples  of  this  may  be  seen 
on  the  coins  of  Demetrios  Poliorketes  and  Lysimachos.^ 

V.  280-146  B.c.  The  Period  of  the  Decline  of  Art,  from  the  death 
of  Lysimachos  to  the  Homan  conquest  of  Greece. 

The  coinage  of  this  period,  especially  the  silver,  is  principally  regal ; 
hence  there  is  little  difficulty  about  dating.  Historically  the  period 
is  important  on  account  of  the  political  changes  which  affected  so 
many  Greek  states ; thus  the  battle  of  Magnesia  in  190  b.c.  had 
important  results  in  Asia  JMinor,  as  had  the  defeat  of  Philip  v.  at 
Kynoskephalae  in  197  on  Continental  Greece.  The  former  restored 
to  the  people  of  many  Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor  the  riglit  of  coining 
which  they  had  lost  under  Alexander ; but  even  then  they  still  con- 
tinued to  issue  coins  after  the  pattern  of  his,  often  with  the  addition 
of  the  name  or  badge  of  the  city,  or  only  with  monograms.  Hence 
the  currency  for  a long  time  consisted  mainly  of  Alexander-types, 
only  distinguished  from  his  real  coinage  by  the  larger  dimensions  of 
the  coins.  The  coinage  of  the  ^Macedonian  kings  comes  to  an  end 
with  the  defeat  of  Perseus  in  168.  Athens  recovered  her  riffht  of 
coinage  about  220,  when  the  new  style  of  tetradrachms  (see  p.  231) 
was  first  issued.  In  Italy  Homan  silver  coinage  begins  about  268, 
putting  an  end  to  nearly  all  the  autonomous  issues.  The  regal  series 
of  this  period  include,  besides  Macedon,  the  kings  of  Egypt,  Syria, 
Bactria,  Pontus,  Bithynia,  Pergamon,  and  Sicily.  From  an  artistic 
point  of  view  the  work  of  the  coins  of  the  period  is  usually  careless, 
though  not  without  merit ; they  comprise  many  fine  portraits,  such 
as  those  of  Hiero  of  Sicily  and  Perseus  of  Macedon.^  But  on  the 
whole  the  coins  are  showy,  aiming  only  at  a general  decorative  effect. 
The  influence  of  Lysippos,  of  the  dramatic  Pergamene  School,  and  of 
its  even  more  theatrical  successors,  is  often  apparent. 

VI.  146  B.c. — 27  B.c.  Period  of  Continued  Decline,  from  the 
Roman  Conquest  to  the  rise  of  the  Homan  Empire. 

The  chief  producer  of  coins  in  this  period  is  Athens,  where  they 
extend  down  to  the  capture  by  Sulla  in  b.c.  86.  The  regal  series  of 

^ Plate  c.,  Nos.  .3,  4.  ^ Plate  c.,  Nos.  8,  10. 

241 


G.  A.— 10 


GREEK  COINS 


Syria  and  Egypt  also  continue  down  to  the  Roman  conquest.  In 
Asia  Minor  the  silver  coins  are  mostly  Kisto])hori,  a special  currency 
permitted  by  the  Romans,  and  so  called  from  the  type  they  bear,  the 
sacred  Bacchic  chest  or  cista  mystica}  The  only  specimens  of  coins 
with  any  pretensions  to  artistic  merit  are  those  with  the  idealised 
portrait  of  Mithradates  vi.  of  Pontus  (121-63  b.c.).^ 

VII.  27  B.c. — A.D.  268.  Period  of  Graeco-Roman  Art,  from 
Augustus  to  Gallienus. 

Under  the  Empire  the  right  of  bronze  coinage  was  granted  to 
various  cities  in  the  east  of  the  Empire,  but  in  the  west  this  was 
rarely  the  case.  These  are  rather  to  be  regarded  as  municipal  than 
imperial  coinages,  the  head  of  the  Emperor  on  the  obverse  being 
merely  complimentary.  JMany  small  towns  issued  coins  on  special 
occasions,  such  as  games  or  festivals.  All  these  coins  are  quite 
devoid  of  artistic  interest,  and  their  sole  importance  is  historical  or 
antiquarian  ; the  art  of  portraiture,  however,  was  revived  with  some 
success  under  the  Roman  Emperors  on  their  own  coins  as  opposed 
to  those  issued  in  Greek  cities. 

1 Head,  Historia  Numorum,  p,  461  ; see  Plate  ci..  No.  4. 

- I’late  CI.,  No.  10. 


242 


CHAPTER  XIII 


GREEK  METAL-WORK 


Origin  of  metal-working  in  Greece — Bronze,  gold,  and  silver  and  their  use — 
Mycenaean  metal-work  and  jewellery — Rise  of  gold-working  in  Greece  and 
Etruria — Etruscan  jewellery — Etruscan  bronze  mirrors  and  cistae — Greek  bronze- 
work — Greek  gold-work  of  best  period — Jewellery  from  the  Crimea — Forgeries — 
Silver-chasing  in  the  Hellenistic  Age. 

IN  order  to  complete  our  survey  of  Greek  Art  in  all  its  branches, 
we  must  not  ignore  the  fact  tliat  many  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
characteristic  products  of  Hellenic  taste  have  not  as  yet  come 
within  our  purview,  namely,  their  ornamental  work  in  metal.  And 
this  industry  has  the  more  claim  on  our  notice  inasmuch  as  it  appears 
in  an  advanced  stage  at  a very  early  period  of  Greek  civilisation,  and 
in  it  may  be  traced  the  whole  development  of  Greek  art  thenceforward 
down  to  Roman  times,  although  the  classes  of  objects  and  the  technical 
processes  in  which  it  is  displayed  vary  in  favour  at  different  epochs. 
Greek  metal-work  may  be  roughly  classified  under  three  headings  : 
Jewellery,  Chasing  in  gold  or  silver,  and  Bronze  work,  exclusive  of 
statuary.  The  first  class  includes  personal  ornaments  of  all  kinds, 
such  as  finger-rings,  necklaces,  earrings,  and  pendants ; the  second 
includes  vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  ornaments  of  furniture,  etc. ; and 
the  third,  repousse  work  and  engraving  in  bronze,  such  as  the  mirrors 
of  the  fourth  century  or  the  Etruscan  cistae.  The  inclusion  herewith 
of  Etruscan  metal-work  needs  no  apology,  for  the  Etruscan  processes 
were  largely  identical  with  the  Greek,  and  their  achievements  hardly 
inferior  in  style  or  technical  merit.  The  ordinary  Greek  term  for  all 
work  of  this  kind  in  gold,  silver,  or  bronze  was  ropeuri/cTy,  though 
in  strict  accuracy  this  work  denotes  chasing,  as  opposed  to  iixTraujTLK-q, 
which  signifies  work  in  repousse.  It  may,  however,  be  employed  as 
a general  term  for  all  processes,  stamping,  chiselling,  or  engraving, 
which  could  be  applied  to  metal,  with  the  exception  of  casting  and 
moulding,  which  belong  to  the  art  of  TrXaart/af  or  sculpture,  and 

243 


GREEK  METAL-WORK 

yXvTTTLK-q,  or  glyptic  art,  by  which  term  those  of  engraving  gems 
and  coin-dies  are  understood.  These  latter  arts  have  been  fully 
dealt  with  in  preeeding  chapters. 

It  is  the  merest  truism  that  in  the  history  of  the  world’s  civilisa- 
tion the  art  of  working  metals  is  one  of  the  earliest  to  eome  into 
general  use  and  one  of  the  most  rapid  in  its  development.  We 
are,  in  faet,  aceustomed  to  regard  the  appearance  of  what  is  generally 
known  as  the  Bronze  Age — at  all  events  in  European  countries — as 
signalising  the  beginnings  of  eivilisation  and  artistie  capacity.  In 
other  words,  it  is  recognised  that  at  a very  remote  period  the  method 
of  working  this  particular  metal  was  well  understood  by  nearly  all 
the  nations  of  antiquity.  On  the  other  hand,  it  ean  hardly  be  said 
that  bronze-working  during  the  primitive  period  was  raised  to  the 
dignity  of  an  art;  numerous  as  the  remains  of  bronze  are,  they  are 
almost  entirely  objeets  of  a utilitarian  eharacter,  such  as  weapons, 
tools,  household  utensils,  or  simple  personal  ornaments.  But  this 
does  not  affeet  the  eontention  that  the  working  of  bronze  was  one 
of  the  earliest  industries  praetised  by  the  sueeessors  of  Neolithie  man. 
The  familiar  instance  of  Tubal-Cain  may  be  taken  as  embodying  an 
aneient  tradition  of  the  primitive  knowledge  of  metal-working ; and 
even  though  the  diseovery  of  tin  and  its  qualities  as  an  alloy  may  be 
a later  development,  we  may  still  be  certain  that  eopper  was  the  first 
metal  on  which  the  eraftsman  of  the  Bronze  Age  praetised  his  hand. 

In  regard  to  the  other  two  metals,  gold  and  silver,  the  ease  is 
somewhat  different,  owing  to  their  greater  rarity  and  unsuitability 
for  the  ordinary  requirements  of  daily  life.  Of  silver  in  particular 
we  know  little  from  actual  discoveries,  this  being  a metal  which 
offers  little  resistanee  to  the  destructive  effeets  of  burial ; and  of 
antique  silver-work  we  possess  little  that  is  anterior  to  the  Roman 
period.  But  gold,  as  is  well  known,  is  virtually  indestructible;  and 
recent  discoveries  on  Greek  soil  have  plaeed  us  in  possession  of  a 
truly  marvellous  series  of  early  gold  ornaments,  many  as  fresh  and 
perfect  as  when  they  left  the  hands  of  their  makers,  whieh  now  enable 
us  to  claim  for  work  in  gold  an  antiquity  almost  equal  to  that  of 
bronze.  We  have  already  given  some  deseription  in  Chapter  ii.  of 
the  wonderful  treasures  found  by  Schliemann  at  Troy  and  JNIycenae 
or  unearthed  by  equally  fortunate  excavators  in  Cyprus,  as  well  as 
the  ‘ Aegina  treasure,’  which  is  discussed  below  in  detail.  Schliemann’s 
finds  at  Troy  form  the  earliest  examples  of  ornamental  woi'k  in  gold  ; 
we  know  now  that  they  cannot  be  Priam’s  treasure,  as  he  thought 
244 


ORIGIN  OF  METAL-WORKING 


(see  p.  15),  and  they  are  of  a semi-barbarous  character  in  spite  of 
their  ornateness.  The  patterns  are  simple,  and  animal  forms  are 
rare.  But  the  later  finds,  as  at  INIycenae,  may  be  held  to  justify 
the  enthusiasm  of  Walter  Pater  when  he  wrote  that  ‘ the  history 
of  Greek  art  begins,  as  some  have  fancied  general  history  to  begin, 
in  a golden  age,  but  in  an  age,  so  to  speak,  of  real  gold,  the  period 
of  those  first  twisters  and  hammerers  of  the  precious  metals — men 
who  had  already  discovered  the  flexibility  of  silver  and  the  ductility 
of  gold,  the  capacity  of  both  for  infinite  delicacy  of  handling,  and  who 
enjoyed,  with  complete  freshness,  a sense  of  beauty  and  fitness  in  their 
work — a period  of  which  that  flower  of  gold  on  a silver  stalk,  picked 
up  lately  in  one  of  the  graves  of  Mycenae,  or  the  legendary  golden 
honeycomb  of  Daedalus,  might  serve  as  the  symbol.’ 

This  abundance  of  gold  at  such  an  early  period  leads  us  to  inquire 
whence  the  ancients  were  able  to  obtain  it  in  such  quantities  with  their 
limited  field  of  commerce.  In  Greece  itself  we  hear  of  gold-mines  in 
the  islands  of  Siphnos  and  Thasos,  and  there  were  others  in  Thrace  and 
Macedonia.  The  gold  deposits  of  the  rivers  of  Asia  Minor,  such  as 
the  Hermus  and  Pactolus,  were  also  famous,  and  further  afield  were 
those  of  Scythia  and  the  river  Oxus.  Here  were  the  fabled  heaps  of 
gold  guarded  by  Gryphons,  as  we  see  depicted  on  a vase  in  the  British 
Museum.  To  the  south,  gold  was  found  in  Arabia,  as  the  Psalmist 
tells  us,^  and  also  in  Upper  Egypt  and  Ethiopia.  It  is  clear  that  even 
in  the  earliest  age  most  of  these  sources  were  open  to  the  peoples  of 
Greece  by  means  of  their  own  or  other  nation’s  commerce.  Silver, 
which  as  we  know  was  plentiful  in  the  days  of  Solomon  (1015-975 
B.C.),  was  found  chiefly  in  Persia  and  Northern  India;  subsequently 
the  mines  of  Laurion  in  Attica  acquired  a great  reputation,  and  in  later 
times  the  great  centres  for  this  metal  were  Spain  and  Sardinia.  Copper 
was  obtained  chiefly  from  Cyprus,  where  it  must  have  been  worked 
from  the  earliest  beginnings  of  the  Bronze  Age,  and  originally  in  a 
pure  state  unmixed  with  tin.  Other  mines  were  at  Chalcis  in  Euboea, 
at  one  time  a great  centre  of  this  industry,  but  they  seem  to  have  been 
worked  out  before  Roman  times ; in  Southern  Italy ; and  in  Spain. 
The  necessary  supplies  of  tin  for  mixing  with  the  copper  came  in  the 
first  place  from  the  region  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  the  ancient  Bactriana  ; 
after  the  Mycenaean  period,  as  is  well  known,  large  quantities  were 
brought  by  the  Phoenicians  from  Britain. 

To  return  to  the  acliievements  of  the  IMycenaean  Age,  which  as  far 

^ Ixxii.  15. 


245 


GREEK  METAL-WORK 


as  the  remains  of  metal-work  are  concerned,  are  chiefly  of  gold,  there 
are  two  sites  in  particular  which  have  yielded  finds  of  great  extent 
and  importance.  These  are  Mycenae,  and  Enkomi  in  Cyprus.  We 
have  already  alluded  in  Chapter  ii.  (p.  19)  to  the  general  artistic 
character  of  these  objects,  which  are  remarkable  for  their  richness 
and  variety.  They  do  not,  however,  include  any  single  example 
which  can  vie  with  the  wonderful  Vaphio  cups  (ibid.)  as  specimens 
of  the  JNIycenaean  goldsmith’s  craft.  It  will  suffice  to  mention  in 
addition,  as  an  example  from  the  latest  stage  of  this  civilisation, 
the  ‘treasure  of  Aegina,’ which  the  British  INIuseum  acquired  some 
years  ago,  and  which  includes  some  typically  Mycenaean  gold-work 
and  other  objects  which  display  Egyptian  influence.^  Among  the 
former  are  a gold  cup  with  reyousse  designs  consisting  of  a rosette 
surrounded  by  spirals,^  a characteristic  INlycenaean  ornament,  and  a 
series  of  large  rosettes,  also  of  repousse  work,  which  are  pierced  in  the 
edges  with  holes,  showing  that  they  were  intended  to  be  sewn  on  to 
the  garments  of  the  deceased.  There  are  also  a series  of  plain  gold 
rings  which,  as  Dr.  Arthur  Evans  has  pointed  out,^  answer  to  a certain 
standard  of  weight,  and  were  therefore  probably  used  as  money.  At 
the  present  day  in  Greece,  it  may  be  noted,  it  is  customary  for  women 
to  wear  their  fortunes  about  their  person  in  the  form  of  ornaments,  and 
tliese  rings  may  have  been  worn  on  a similar  principle.  Another  ring 
is  more  of  the  form  familiar  in  later  times,  with  a bezel  in  the  form  of 

ft 

a shield.  Lastly,  there  are  four  remarkable  pendants,  in  the  form  of 
plates  of  open-work,  with  chains  to  which  small  gold  discs  are  fastened.^ 
A similar  plate  is  cut  in  the  form  of  an  Egyptian  figure  standing  on 
a boat,  also  of  Egyptian  form.  Dr.  Evans,  who  dated  the  treasure 
about  the  tenth  century  b.c.,  regards  the  objects  as  all  of  Greek  manu- 
facture, ‘ though  under  strong  Asiatic  and,  no  doubt  to  a great  extent, 
Phoenician  influence.’  That  is  to  say,  that  the  influences  which  make 
themselves  felt  in  the  style  of  the  objects  differ  in  many  respects, 
e.g.<>  in  the  absence  of  naturalism,  from  those  usually  apparent  in 
Mycenaean  art. 

Leaving  the  JMycenaean  Age  now  for  the  subsequent  period  of  the 
dawn  of  Greek  history  we  must  first  bridge  over  a gap  of  several  centuries 
during  which  the  jeweller’s  art  is  at  a very  low  ebb,  and  specimens  of 
metal-work  hardly  exist.  Yet  during  this  period  the  gem-engraver’s 

* Journ.  Hell.  Stud.  xiii.  p.  195  ff.  2 pj^te  cii. 

^ Op.  cit.  p.  212.  Gold  rings,  apparently  for  a similar  purpose,  were  also  found  at  Enkomi. 

^ See  Plate  cii. 

24G 


plate  c/1 


(I5UITISH  MU^l'LM) 


FLA  IE  cm 


<:i  ki’scAN  <;oij)  orxa.mknts 

(liKITISIl  Ml  SKIM) 


EARLY  METAL-WORK 


hand  had  not  lost  its  cunning,  as  the  series  of  ‘ island-gems  ’ (p.  208) 
sufficiently  indicates.  We  are  forced  to  turn  for  the  metal-work  of 
this  period  to  literary  records,  such  as  they  are,  for  which  reference  may 
be  made  to  the  works  of  art  described  in  Chapter  ii.  These  are  the 
shield  of  Achilles  and  other  objects  familiar  to  us  from  the  Homeric 
poems,  the  Hesiodic  shield  of  Herakles,  and  the  less  mythical  chest  of 
Kypselos,  in  which  the  decoration  was  largely  plated  with  gold. 
Homer  also  recognises  the  x^\k€v<;  or  smith  as  a well-known  type, 
and  alludes  to  his  tools.  The  method  of  decoration,  if  not  the  tech- 
nique, of  the  Homeric  shield,  may  be  reflected,  as  was  pointed  out  by 
the  late  A.  S.  Murray,  in  the  series  of  bronze  and  silver  bowls  found 
on  various  sites  in  Cyprus,  and  also  in  Italy,  wliich  belong  to  the  eighth 
and  seventh  centuries  b.c.  They  are  clearly  of  Phoenician  work- 
manship, richly  ornamented  with  engraved  designs  of  hunting-scenes, 
pastoral  scenes,  and  decorative  patterns ; but  they  are  rather  to  be 
regarded  as  influencing  Greek  art  than  as  actually  illustrating  its 
development.  The  only  other  work  of  this  period  to  which  space 
permits  us  to  allude  is  the  series  of  gold  plaques  from  Kameiros  in 
Rhodes  (now  in  the  British  ^luseum)  with  repousse  designs  of  Cen- 
taurs, the  ‘ Asiatic  ’ Artemis  with  two  lions,  and  similar  subjects. 
These  date  from  the  seventh  century  b.c. 

Meanwhile,  in  Etruria  a steady  artistic  development  may  be  traced 
in  metal-work,  parallel  with  that  of  Greece,  yet  in  many  ways  distinct. 
The  period  of  early  Italian  civilisation,  from  the  time  of  the  Etruscan 
immigration,  about  1000  b.c.,  down  to  the  seventh  century,  is  known  as 
the  ‘Villanuova’  period  (from  a site  of  that  name  at  Bologna),  and 
exhibits  an  interesting  series  of  works  in  bronze,  which  includes  objects 
cast  and  hammered  and  worked  in  repousse.  Sculpture,  indeed,  is 
limited  to  small  figures  of  a votive  character,  closely  resembling  those 
found  at  Olympia ; but  of  other  forms  of  metal-work  there  are  abundant 
examples.  These  mostly  take  the  form  of  large  bronze  urns  and  buckets 
[situlae),  decorated  with  friezes  ; and  many  of  the  smaller  objects,  such 
as  t\\e  fibulae  or  safety-brooches,  are  interesting,  if  not  artistically,  for 
their  chronological  development.  JMany  of  the  bronze  objects  of  this 
epoch,  such  as  the  larger  fibulae,  are  ornamented  with  figures  of  ducks 
modelled  in  the  round,  a characteristic  of  early  Greek  as  well  as  of 
early  Italian  metal-work.^  Towards  the  end  of  the  seventh  centuiy  a 
great  change  comes  over  the  art  of  Etruria— hitherto  purely  local  in 


1 See  examples  in  the  British  Museum,  Cat.  of  Bronzes-,  345-358  ; also  Journ.  Hell.  Stud. 
xiii.  p.  200. 


247 


GREEK  METAL-WORK 


character — and  contemporaneously  great  waves  of  Oriental  and  of 
Greek  influence  sweep  into  the  country.  In  the  latter  case  we  may 
perhaps  see  a verification  of  the  tradition  that  when  Demaratos  was 
expelled  from  Corinth  in  605  li.c.  he  took  with  him  a body  of  craftsmen 
who  introduced  various  arts  into  their  new  home  in  Italy. 

However  this  may  be,  we  see  in  the  contents  of  the  Polledrara 
tomb  at  Vulci  (now  in  the  llritish  IMuseum)  strong  traces  both  of 
Greek  and  Oriental  influence,  as  in  the  bands  of  reliefs  round  the 
bronze  bust,  tlie  upper  part  of  which  is  purely  Etruscan  in  style,  but 
the  reliefs  are  Greek  both  in  style  and  feeling,  probably  also  in 
execution,  and  have  much  in  common  with  what  we  know  of  early 
bronze  relief-work  in  Greece  and  lonia.^  But  the  bust  itself  is  purely 
Etruscan,  and  well  exemplifies  the  inability  of  that  people  to  achieve 
satisfactory  sculpture  in  the  round.  Of  a similar  character  is  a series 
of  silver  reliefs  in  the  British  Museum  found  at  Perugia,  having  points 
of  contact  with  the  Ionic  vases  of  the  sixth  century.  This  and  other 
evidence  has  led  scholars  to  the  conclusion  that  much  of  what  had 
previously  passed  for  Etruscan  metal-work,  chiefly  from  the  fact  of  its 
having  been  found  in  Etruria,  was  really  imported  from  Greece,  and 
more  especially  from  Ionia,  a region  which,  as  vase-finds  show,  was 
always  in  close  intercourse  with  Italy.  It  is  also  interesting  to  note 
that  the  early  architectural  terra-cotta  work  of  Etruria,  including  a 
sarcophagus  in  the  British  INIuseum,  and  painted  slabs  and  sculptured 
friezes  from  Cervetri  (p.  148)  presents  just  the  same  features  of  Ionic 
art.  Similarly  it  is  now  generally  recognised  that  not  only  several 
classes  of  early  painted  vases,  but  many  sixth-century  gems,  formerly 
regarded  as  Etruscan,  must  rightly  be  claimed  as  Ionian  work  (cf. 

p.  210). 

But  we  must  not  ignore  the  other  factor,  that  of  Oriental  influence, 
which  is  exemplified  in  a cista  or  coffer  from  the  Castellani  collection. 
This  is  of  wood  plated  with  open-work  designs  in  silver,  and  bordered 
with  a frieze  of  lotos-and-honeysuckle  pattern  of  a kind  found  on 
those  early  Greek  vases  which  show  the  closest  dependence  on 
Oriental  prototypes.  Among  examples  of  more  direct  Oriental  in- 
fluence may  be  noted,  besides  faience  vases  found  in  the  Polledrara 
tomb,  a series  of  silver  and  bronze  bowls  found  at  Palestrina  (Prae- 
neste),  a city  which,  though  situated  on  the  other  side  of  Rome,  was 
apparently  dependent  on  the  Etruscans  for  its  works  of  art,  as  will 
be  seen  later.  These  bowls  are  of  the  kind  to  which  we  have  already 

‘ Cf.  some  early  Corinthian  ^old  reliefs  published  in  Arch.  Zeiiimg,  1884,  pi.  8. 

248 


EARLY  ETRUSCAN  METAL -WORK 


made  allusion,  as  being  of  Plioenician  workmanship,  and  found  also 
in  Cyprus. 

Ihe  earliest  gold  objects  in  Etruscan  tombs  are  casual  impor- 
tations, beginning  about  the  end  of  the  seventh  century,  when  the 
fossa  type  of  tomb  was  being  replaced  by  the  corridor  or  chamber 
type  ; as  the  sixth  century  advances  they  become  more  frequent.  The 
Polledrara  tomb  contains  a richly  embossed  gold  diadem  ; and  still  more 
noteworthy  is  the  series  of  objects  found  in  the  contemporary  Itegulini- 
Galassi  tomb  at  Cervetri,  together  with  numerous  vessels  and  imple- 
ments of  bronze.  Silver,  except  in  the  examples  already  noted,  is 
much  rarer,  and  chiefly  appears  in  the  form  of  fibulae,  bracelets,  and 
spirals  ; and  it  is  to  the  Etruscan  gold- work  that  we  must  turn  as 
most  truly  typical  of  the  metal-work  of  the  archaic  and  subsequent 
periods. 


The  fondness  of  the  Etruscans  for  jewellery  was  perennial  and 
universal,  and  is  exenq^lified  not  only  by  the  multitude  of  existing 
specimens,  but  also  by  the  manner  in  which  the  figures  on  their  other 
works  of  art,  especially  women,  are  adorned.  To  take  an  instance — 
late  indeed,  but  still  typical — the  effigy  of  Seianti  Thanunia  which  sur- 
mounts her  sarcophagus  in  the  British  ^luseum,  is  decked  out  with  a 
gilt  sphendone  over  the  forehead,  heavy  pendent  earrings  of  gold  and 
amber,  a rich  necklace  of  the  same  materials,  bracelets  in  the  form  of 
serpents,  and  many  large  rings  on  the  fingers.  These  ornaments  are  of 
course  only  reproduced  in  terra-cotta,  but  are  painted  yellow  or  brown 
to  represent  the  original  materials. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  discussing  Etruscan  gold 
ornaments  the  distinction  must  be  observed  between  those  intended 
for  personal  wear  and  those  made  only  for  funerary  purposes.  The 
Etruscans  were  addicted  to  great  pomp  in  their  funeral  ceremonies, 
and  the  corpse  of  the  deceased  was  always  decked  with  all  kinds  of 
finery,  which  accompanied  it  to  the  tomb ; hence  the  practice  arose  of 
employing  a cheaper,  if  more  showy,  kind  of  ornament  for  this  purpose, 
and  stamped  gold-leaf  was  largely  called  into  request  as  a simple  means 
of  avoiding  expense  without  the  appearance  of  niggardliness.  The 
process  was  not  indeed  one  confined  to  funereal  jewellery,  and  had  been 
employed  for  a long  time  in  different  parts  of  Greece — at  Mycenae, 
and  in  Rhodes,  Cyprus  and  Lydia — where  it  was  at  one  time  the  only 
known  process  for  gold  ornaments  \ but  it  is  still  characteristic  of  a 
certain  class  of  ornaments  found  in  Etruscan  tombs.  Among  these 

are  crowns  or  wreaths  of  large  leaves,  of  which  examples  may  be  seen 

249 


GREEK  METAL-WORK 


in  tlie  British  Museum,^  one  placed  on  a bronze  helmet ; and  pectorals, 
intended  to  be  sewn  on  dresses,  or  to  cover  bronze  objects,  of  which 
there  are  examples  in  the  \^atican. 

Subsequent  to  the  seventh  century,  when  the  process  is  said  to 
have  been  invented,  the  practice  of  soldering  appears  to  have  come  into 
regular  use  for  personal  ornaments  of  all  kinds.  We  find  diadems, 
of  which  the  Louvre  possesses  a beautiful  example,  consisting  of  petals, 
rosettes,  or  palmettos,  attached  to  a plain  band  of  gold-leaf;  or  again 
spherical  bullae  and  other  figures,  hollow  inside,  and  consequently  very 
light  and  fragile,  with  designs  worked  in  I'epousse  on  gold  plates  which 
are  bent  up  and  joined  at  the  edges  to  present  a solid  surface.  The 
bulla,  a circular  ornament  with  more  or  less  convex  surface,  was  the 
typical  Etruscan  ornament,  worn  as  a pendant  to  a necklace  by  men 
and  women  alike,  as  in  later  days  by  Roman  boys  before  they  assumed 
the  toga  virilis.  Nearly  all  the  jewellery  of  the  sixth  century  is  made 
in  this  way ; it  is  very  rare  to  find  a solid  gold  ornament,  or  one  made 
in  one  piece. 

But  the  typical  Etruscan  processes  are  those  in  filigree  and  granu- 
lated work.“  The  former  consists  of  fine  threads  of  gold,  which  are 
sometimes  plaited  into  chains  or  otherwise  combined,  sometimes  worked 
singly  in  all  kinds  of  patterns  and  figures,  and  soldered  on  to  a flat 
surface.  The  latter  takes  the  form  of  minute  granules  of  gold  placed 
close  together  over  a flat  surface,  either  purely  ornamental,  or  as  a 
method  of  representing  hair  in  figures.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
examples  of  these  two  processes  is  a mask  of  Dionysos  in  the  Louvre, 
in  which  the  curls  of  hair  over  the  forehead  are  represented  by  filigree 
spirals,  while  the  hair  on  the  crown  and  the  beard  are  worked  entirely 
in  the  granulated  method.  All  these  technical  processes  are  quite 
peculiar  to  Etruria,  nor  have  modern  workers  in  jewellery  altogether 
succeeded  in  discovering  their  secrets,  although  frequent  attempts  were 
made  by  Signor  Castellani,  a connoisseur  of  great  skill  and  experience. 
These  attempts  were  based  on  a study  of  the  survivals  of  antique 
ornaments  among  the  Italian  peasantry  (see  below,  p.  264). 

In  the  pit-tombs  personal  ornaments  are  almost  confined  to  spirals 
of  bronze,  probably  used  for  twisting  up  in  the  hair ; but  subsequently 
tliese  are  also  made  in  gold  and  silver,  and  a kind  of  large  hair-pin  with 
bulbous  head  also  makes  its  appearance.  The  latter  are  often  orna- 
mented with  stamped  reliefs  or  designs  in  filigree  and  granulated  work. 
Of  these  there  are  examples  in  the  Louvre.  The  early  monuments  also 

^ A specimen  is  ^iven  on  Plate  cm.  ^ Ibid. 

250 


ETRUSCAN  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


show  figures  wearing  crowns  or  diadems,  ornamented  with  foliated 
patterns,  the  leaves  being  exceedingly  fine  and  fragile,  but  it  is  not 
certain  whether  or  not  these  are  only  funerary.  Some  specimens  reach 
a high  degree  of  excellence,  with  figures  in  relief,  and  one  in  the 
Bibliotheque  Rationale  is  a perfect  marvel  of  the  jeweller’s  art. 

Of  even  greater  interest  are  the  Etruscan  earrings,  of  which  several 
types  were  in  vogue  at  different  periods.  The  earliest  is  that  known  to 
Italian  archaeologists  as  a baulc,  or  ‘ coffer-shaped,’  and  is  found  at 
Vulci  in  the  seventh-century  tombs.  It  is  very  common  in  the  sixth 
century,  but  then  disappears.  The  broad  fiat  surface  of  the  earring, 
which  consists  of  a simple  plate  of  metal  bent  into  a semi-cylindrical 
shape,  is  enriched  with  spirals,  filigree  and  granulated  work,  and  rows 
of  studs  or  globules.  Other  sixth-century  types  include  crescents  with 
small  trefoil  pendants,  large  plain  discs,  such  as  are  worn  by  the  figures 
in  a painting  from  Corneto,  and  rosettes.  The  filigree  and  granulated 
work  of  this  period  reaches  an  extraordinary  degree  of  fine  craftsman- 
ship. After  the  fifth  century  Greek  types  oust  the  native  forms,  but 
most  examples  lack  the  Greek  fineness  and  taste.  A common  type  of 
earring  is  derived  from  the  coffer-form,  the  bent  plate  terminating 
below  in  a trefoil  of  three  large  convex  discs  with  small  beads  in  the 


interstices ; the  general  effect  is  heavy  and  tasteless,  and  the  size 
absurdly  exaggerated.^  A more  effective  type  is  that  of  the  pendant  in 
tlie  form  of  a swan,  an  Eros,  or  a Nike,  modelled  in  white  enamel  with 
gold  details. 

Tlie  necklace  was  above  all  others  the  favourite  Etruscan  form  of 
jewellery.  It  is  constantly  seen  on  the  statues  of  deities,  women,  and 
children,  often  with  the  pendent  disc  or  bulla  attached,  the  object  of 
which  was  prophylactic.  A good  early  specimen  of  this  form  of 
ornament  is  the  stiff  collar  or  gorget  worn  by  the  bronze  Polledrara 
bust,  doubtless  an  imitation  of  gold  work.  Some  very  beautiful 
examples  of  fine  plaited  chain  work  with  pendants  of  various  kinds, 
such  as  Gorgons’  heads.  Sirens,  or  acorns,  belong  to  the  succeeding 
period. “ Pendants  are  also  often  made  of  precious  stones,  or  a whole 
necklace  is  composed  of  beads  in  various  materials. 

Fibulae  or  brooches  are  not  found  in  gold  till  after  the  end  of  the 
pit-tomb  period  (900  n.c.),  when  the  ‘leech’  type,  with  its  semi-circular 
bow,  was  in  vogue,  often  ornamented  with  filigree  spirals,  or  with  an 
elaborate  sheath  for  the  pin.  This  type  prevails  down  to  the  end  of 
the  seventh  century,  when  it  becomes  fairly  common.  One  was  found 


* See  Plate  cm. 


2 IhkL 


251 


GREEK  METAL-WORK 

in  the  Regiilini-Gahissi  tomb,  and  another  has  a remarkable  early  Latin 
inscription. 

M.  Martha,  in  summing  up  the  eharacteristics  of  Etruscan  jewellery, 
distinguishes  three  periods  of  style.^  In  the  first  (down  to  500  b.c.), 
the  jewellery  is  fine  and  clev^erly  worked,  but  not  beautiful ; Oriental 
motives  are  introduced  about  the  end  of  the  seventh  century,  and  the 
majority  of  examples  are  subject  to  this  influence,  as  is  shown  by  their 
resemblance  to  the  contemporary  work  of  Cyprus,  Rhodes,  and  Asia 
Minor.  In  the  second  period  (500-800  b.c.)  there  is  a great  advance; 
the  forms  are  simple,  the  compositions  restrained,  and  the  richness  of 
detail  is  not  overdone ; the  style  is  free  and  naturalistic,  marked  by 
extraordinary  technical  dexterity.  The  work  of  this  period  must  be 
largely  Greek,  as  may  be  deduced  from  its  analogies  with  the  jewellery 
of  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus  (see  p.  26 1),  and  from  the  dependence  of 
the  Etruseans  in  this,  as  in  other  branches  of  art,  on  extraneous  in- 
fluences, first  Oriental,  then  Hellenic.  It  is  only  in  the  third  period 
(300-100  B.c.)  that  we  see  the  results  of  genuinely  native  work;  and 
how  great  is  the  difference  ! Pretentious  vulgarity  is  the  prevailing 
note,  and  size  is  the  one  object  aimed  at,  as  we  saw  in  the  case  of  the 
earrings. 

Before  we  return  from  the  contemplation  of  Etruscan  metal  work  to 
that  of  the  best  Greek  periods,  we  must  turn  to  the  consideration  of 
another  branch  of  art  which  enlisted  their  activities,  and  in  which  they 
undeniably  achieved  a considerable  measure  of  success.  In  the  engraving 
of  bronze  the  Etruscans  made  an  almost  entirely  new  departure.  The 
process  is  not  indeed  unknown  in  Greece,  but  was  always  subordinated 
to  relief-work  ; in  Etruria  the  reverse  is  the  case.  It  has  indeed  been 
suggested  that  the  Etruscan  engraved  bronze  work  represents  in  their 
art  an  analogous  phase  of  artistic  achievement  to  the  painted  vases  of 
Athens,  especially  those  of  the  red-figure  period.  At  all  events  the 
influence  of  vase-painting  can  be  traced  in  their  engraved  mirrors,  the 
circular  surface  recalling  the  interior  space  of  the  Greek  kylix,  the 
deeoration  of  which  Epiktetos,  Euphronios  and  their  contemporaries 
brought  to  perfection.  The  vase-paintings  also  provided  an  unlimited 
choice  of  subjects ; and  in  the  Etruscan  practice  of  inscribing  names 
over  their  figures  we  may  see  another  trace  of  the  same  influence.  It 
will  be  remembered  tliat  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century,  the  time 
when  the  engraved  mirrors  rose  into  popularity,  was  the  time  when 
the  importation  of  Athenian  vases  into  Etruria  was  at  its  height.  And 

^ V Art  Etrusque,  p.  584. 


252 


s. 


<:rKUSCAN  ENGRAVED  MIRRORS 
(hri  tish  museum) 


PL  A TK  Cl’ 


;kkkk  knckavki)  i’.koxzks 

(I'.Ri  riSH  muskum) 


ETRUSCAN  MIRRORS 

further,  in  the  fourth-eentury  cistae,  or  toilet-chests,  of  which  so  many 
fine  examples  have  been  found  at  Palestrina  (Praeneste),  we  may  see 
reflections  of  the  more  pictorial  scenes  on  the  later  Greek  vases,  for 
which  the  neighbouring  region  of  Campania  was  at  that  time  a 
principal  centre. 

The  majority  of  the  Etruscan  mirrors  belong  to  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries  n.c.,  though  not  a few  go  back  to  the  fifth  century,  and  some 
are  indubitably  archaic  in  style.  In  the  best  period  the  conceptions 
are  carefully  thought  out,  and  thoroughly  Hellenic  in  spirit,  the  draw- 
ing refined  and  masterly ; in  the  later  stage  the  drawing  is  free  and 
careless,  and  the  subjects  mostly  monotonous  repetitions  of  certain 
types.  An  obvious  comparison  may  be  made  with  the  contemporary 
vase-painting  of  Campania  and  Apulia.  The  subjects  engraved  on 
these  mirrors  are  almost  entirely  drawn  from  Greek  mythology, 
especially  in  the  best  period,  the  Trojan  legends  or  groups  of  deities 
being  the  most  popular.  Mingled  with  these  purely  Hellenic  concep- 
tions, Etruscan  deities  often  appear,  such  as  the  Lasae^  or  Fates,  who, 
like  almost  all  female  deities  of  Etruria,  are  depicted  as  winged  women. 
More  rarely,  scenes  from  local  or  Homan  legends  are  found,  such  as 
the  suckling  of  Romulus  and  Remus  by  the  wolf.  On  many  of  the 
later  examples  are  depicted  figures  of  the  mysterious  Cabeiri,  but  the 
reason  for  their  popularity  in  Etruria  is  unknown.  The  Etruscan 
engraver  had  also  a weakness  for  incongruous  combinations  of 
mythological  personages,  such  as  Ajax  and  Amphiaraos,  or  Alkmena, 
Thetis,  and  Seilenos.  These  anomalies  may  be  due  either  to  confused 
ideas  or  to  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  artist.  Among  the  finest 
existing  examples  may  be  mentioned  one  in  the  British  jMuseum 
representing  the  meeting  of  Menelaos  and  Helen  after  the  taking 
of  Troy;^  another  in  Berlin  with  Dionysos  and  Semele ; and  one 
in  the  Bibliotheque  Rationale  at  Paris  with  the  Apotheosis  of 
Herakles. 

The  inscriptions  are  also  an  interesting  feature.  The  Etruscans, 
while  adopting  the  Greek  myths  and  legends  wholesale,  transformed 
the  names  of  the  deities  and  persons  represented  into  their  own  lan- 
guage and  alphabet.  Thus  Athena  appears  as  Mcnerfa^  Aphrodite  as 
Tiu'an,  Hermes  as  Turms,  Dionysos  as  Phiiphluns ; and  the  names  of 
heroes  are  only  a degree  less  transformed:  Achlc  for  Achilles,  Pick- 
seritix  for  Alexander  (Paris),  or  Meier  pant  a for  Bellerophon.  A 
mirror  of  late  date  in  the  British  Museum,  formerly  in  M.  Tyszkie- 

^ Plate  CIV.  The  left-hand  mirror  on  that  plate  is  of  the  archaic  period. 

253 


GREEK  METAL-WORK 

wicz  s collection,  represents  a girl  and  a man  playing  at  the  game  of 
duodccim  scripta ; she  is  represented  as  saying  Uevincam  ted,  ‘ I shall 
beat  you,  to  which  he  replies  Opinoi\  ‘ I think  so  ’ — these  inscriptions 
being,  it  is  noteworthy,  in  Latin. 

1 he  Etruscans  also  applied  the  method  of  engraved  designs  to 
another  class  of  objects  used  in  their  daily  life,  cistae  or  large  cylin- 
drical toilet -boxes  of  bronze,  of 
which  many  fine  specimens  have 
been  found  at  Praeneste  in  Latium, 
though  they  are  rare  in  Etruria. 
About  eighty  in  all  are  known,  of 
which  only  a few  have  designs  of 
any  particular  merit,  but  some  of 
these  are  genuine  works  of  art. 
Most  famous  of  all  is  the  great 
Ficoroni  cist  a in  the  Museo  Kir- 
cheriano  at  Rome  (Fig.  18),^  which 
can  be  dated,  from  a Latin  inscrip- 
tion on  its  lid,  about  b.c.  200 ; this 
inscription  gives  the  name  of  the 
maker,  T^^ovius  Plautius,  who  is 
thought  to  have  been  a Campanian 
working  at  Rome.  The  subject  is 
that  of  the  Argonauts  on  their 
arrival  among  the  Bebryces  in 
Bithynia,  where  Pollux  punishes 
the  churlish  King  Amykos,  while 
his  companions  amuse  themselves 
in  various  ways.  It  is  remarkable 
for  purity  of  style,  skill  in  com- 
position, and  delicacy  in  the  en- 
graving, and  is  treated  quite  in  the 
style  of  the  finest  red-figured  vases, 
those  which  reflect  the  manner  of 
Polygnotos  (p.  151).  An  inferior,  but  still  meritorious  work,  is  the 
cista  in  the  British  JMuseum,  which  represents  the  sacrifice  of  Trojan 
prisoners  by  Achilles  at  the  pyre  of  Patroklos.  Others,  too,  bear 
subjects  from  Trojan  legends,  among  which  is  a specimen,  also  in 
the  British  Museum,  with  the  Judgment  of  Paris,  a finely  conceived 

^ Ainelung,  Museums  of  Rome,  i.  p.  290 ; Martha,  V Art  Etrusque,  p.  537. 

254 


Fig.  18.  The  Ficoroni  Cista. 


PLA  IK  Cl  I 


rnK  sikis  kkoxzKs  a\d  iikkoic  I'KU'kk 

(liKTnsH  :\iusku.m) 


l^LATE  evil 


(;R1<:KK  I’.RONZK  KKUKI'S;  l.  mirror  cask.  l'.  THK  HAWKINS  RKl.lKF 

(HKIIISII  MUbKUM) 


ETRUSCAN  BRONZE-ENGRAVING 

and  carefully  executed  design,  but  with  certain  peculiarities  of  detail 
which  betray  its  Etruscan  origin. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  three  distinct  processes  must  have  been 
necessary  in  the  production  of  these  cistae.  In  the  first  place,  the 
bronze  plates  were  cut  into  squares  and  received  their  engraved  decora- 
tion, which  (as  also  in  the  mirrors)  was  usually  rendered  more  distinct 
by  filling  in  the  lines  of  the  graving-tool  with  a white  chalky  pigment. 
Ihe  plates  were  then  clipped  and  bent  to  a cylindrical  form,  the  edges 
soldered  together,  and  the  bottom  and  cover  attached.  Finally,  the 
handles,  feet,  and  a row  of  rings  with  chains  suspended  from  them  were 
put  on,  in  some  cases  partially  obscuring  the  incised  designs.  The  feet 
were  always  made  in  the  form  of  lions’  claws,  with  a figure  in  relief  at  the 
point  of  attachment  to  the  body,  the  handles  in  the  form  of  single  figures 
or  groups,  which  by  their  composition  were  suitable  for  the  purpose,  such 
as  Peleus  and  Atalanta  wrestling,  or  two  men  carrying  a dead  body. 


The  achievements  of  Greek  workers  in  metal  during  the  period  we 
have  been  considering  in  Italy  have  perforce  been  lost  sight  of  for  the 
time  being,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  this  Etruscan  metal- 
work, and  still  more  the  jewellery,  reproduces  for  us  the  main  charac- 
teristics of  the  genuine  Greek  work  of  the  time  in  a greater  degree 
than  is  the  case  with  any  other  branch  of  art  as  practised  by  both 
nations.  We  have  seen  that  the  Etruscan  jewellery  of  about  500- 
300  B.c.  is  very  largely  inspired  by  Greek  feeling  and  Greek  ideas,  even 
if  its  technique  is  of  purely  native  origin,  and  the  existing  remains 
from  Etruscan  tombs  are  so  much  more  plentiful,  and  their  continuous 
development  so  much  more  strongly  marked  than  is  the  case  with  the 
somewhat  isolated  and  scanty  finds  in  Greece  proper  during  the  period 
600-400  B.C.,  that  in  according  to  the  former  a somewhat  large  propor- 
tion of  our  space  we  are  really  at  the  same  time  making  a sort  of 
survey  of  the  metal- work  of  Hellas  itself. 

But  there  are  certain  features  which  are  not  only  peculiar  to  Greek 
work,  but  which  also  illustrate  its  superiority  to  that  of  Etruria,  such 
as  the  bronze  mirror-cases  of  the  fourth  century  with  their  beautiful 
relief  designs,  and  the  analogous  relief- work  of  the  Siris  bronzes  and 
the  bronze  vases  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  In  the  sphere  of  gold 
and  silver  work  there  is  practically  nothing  to  note  until  we  come  to 
the  fourth  century,  with  the  marvellous  finds  in  the  Cimmerian 
Bosphorus  or  Crimea : and  for  this  period  the  bronze  work  alone 
claims  our  attention. 


GREEK  METAL-WORK 


Greek  ornamental  work  in  bronze  may  be  considered  under  two 
distinct  heads  : tliat  with  engraved  or  incised  decoration,  and  repousse 
work  or  relief.  Incised  work  was  for  some  reason  never  so  popular  in 
Greece  as  in  Etruria,  and  seems  to  have  gone  out  of  fashion  almost 
entirely  by  the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  Its  history  can,  however,  be 
traced  from  the  Hoeotian  fibulae  of  the  Geometrical  period  (eighth 
century  b.c.)  down  to  the  fourth  century,  when  it  is  possible  that  such 
examples  as  occur  are  due  to  a sort  of  reflex  influence  of  Etruscan  art. 
The  Boeotian  fibulae  form  a peculiar  local  development  of  that  form 
of  ornament,  emanating  from  Thebes,  some  with  a large  sail-siiaped 
piece  of  metal  attached  to  the  foot,  others  with  the  bow  or  upper  bar 
of  the  pin  enlarged  into  a crescent-shaped  or  semicircular  piece  of 
metal.  In  the  former  case  the  designs  are  usually  of  a simple  character 
corresponding  to  the  animals  and  patterns  on  the  contemporary  vases 
of  that  locality ; the  latter  are  represented  only  by  a few  examples, 
among  which  are  some  remarkable  specimens  in  the  British  Museum. 
One  of  these  is  particularly  noteworthy  for  its  mythological  design,  the 
slaying  of  the  Hydra  by  Herakles,  who  is  also  attacked  by  the  crab 
which  Hera  sent.  On  another  a ship  is  represented.  The  style  is 
rude,  and  not  above  the  level  of  the  Dipylon  vases  (p.  170),  but  the 
fiofures  are  much  less  conventional. 

Coming  down  to  a later  stage  of  archaic  art,  that  of  the  sixth 
century,  we  find,  in  a bronze  cuirass  excavated  at  Olympia,  a very 
remarkable  specimen  of  the  work  of  the  middle  of  that  century.^  The 
figures  consist  of  a lion  and  a bull  in  a sort  of  medallion  on  each  side 
of  the  upper  portion,  between  which  are  two  Sphinxes  erect  and  con- 
fronted, and  two  panthers  in  similar  attitude.  Below  is  a frieze  of 
figures,  three  each  side,  representing  a lyre-player  and  a chorus,  con- 
sisting of  two  girls  and  three  men.  All  are  clad  in  stiff,  formal 
garments  with  elaborately-executed  patterns,  and  the  whole  design 
recalls  the  earlier  stages  of  black-figure  vase-painting,  when  the  fond- 
ness for  friezes  of  animals  was  giving  way  to  a preference  for  human 
figures.  The  late  A.  S.  Murray  has  suggested  that  the  poverty  and 
harshness  which  are  visible  in  the  drawing  are  more  characteristic  of 
early  Etruscan  than  of  early  Greek  art,  but  it  is  too  early  a date  at 
which  to  conceive  the  possibility  of  an  Etruscan  importation.  The 
somewhat  affected  style  of  the  whole  composition  is  more  in  accordance 
with  the  Ionic  art  of  the  time,  as  reflected  in  the  black-figured  vases  of 
Amasis  and  Exekias  (p.  173). 

1 Murray,  Handbook  of  Greek  Archaeology,  p.  122. 


25G 


GREEK  BRONZE-ENGRAVING 

1 lie  transitional  stage  from  archaic  to  perfected  art  is  well  illus- 
trated by  two  bronze  discs,  one  from  Sicily,  in  the  British  Museum,  the 
other  from  Aegina,  at  Berlin,  which  may  be  dated  about  500-480  n.c.^ 
In  both  cases  the  designs  consist  of  a single  figure  of  an  athlete  on 
either  side,  holding  a spear,  jumping-pole,  or  jumping  - weights 
(aXr^peg),  the  reference  being  to  the  contests  of  the  pentathlon.  The 
style  exhibits  a great  advance  on  the  cuirass ; the  figures  might  almost 
be  copied  from  statues  by  INlyron  or  Pythagoras,  and  the  anatomical 
details  are  treated  in  the  same  way  as  in  tlie  contemporary  vases  of  the 
earlier  red-figure  style. 

The  latest  instances  of  Greek  engraving  on  bronze  are  to  be  seen 
on  the  insides  of  the  mirror-cases  which  we  shall  presently  describe  in 
another  connection.  There  is  a very  fine  instance  found  at  Corinth,^ 
with  two  figures  personifying  the  city  of  Corinth  and  the  island  of 
Eeukas,  as  the  names  inscribed  over  them  show ; the  inscriptions  are 
in  Greek  characters,  but  the  style  has  much  more  in  common  with  the 
Etruscan  mirrors  of  the  best  period,  and  it  has  been  argued,  with  some 
probability,  that  we  have  here  an  actual  instance  of  importation  from 
Etruria.  The  British  INIuseum  possesses  two  similar  examples,  one 
with  a love-scene,  the  other  with  Aphrodite  and  Pan  playing  at  the 
game  of  ‘ five  stones,’  a sort  of  variation  of  knucklebones.^  The  drawing 
in  this  last  example  is  particularly  fine,  the  attitudes  are  simple  and 
natural,  and  the  whole  design  of  great  beauty.  All  these  three  belong, 
as  the  character  of  their  subjects  would  lead  us  to  suppose,  to  the 
fourth  century  b.c. 

Greek  bronze-work  in  relief  can  be  traced,  if  not  back  to  so  remote 
a period  as  the  incised  work,  at  all  events  down  to  a later  date,  and 
moreover  is  represented  by  a much  larger  series  of  examples.  It  is  in 
fact  difficult  to  select  the  most  representative  in  a brief  survey.  But 
we  can  hardly  pass  over  a series  of  reliefs  recently  found  at  Olympia, 
in  Boeotia,  and  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  which  represent  the  earliest 
purely  Hellenic  work  in  this  metal.  They  are  thin  leaf-like  plaques 
of  bronze,  of  various  shapes  and  sizes,  some  of  which  were  probably 
used  for  decorating  chests  like  that  of  Kypselos,  others  are  of  a purely 
votive  character,  and  they  are  ornamented  with  a great  variety  of 
subjects.  One  of  the  most  interesting  is  from  Olympia,  and  preserves 
a type  found  on  one  of  the  quasi-Mycenaean  island-gems  (p.  208), 


G.  A.— 17 


1 The  former  is  given  on  Plate  cv. 

2 Mon.  Grecs,  1873,  pi.  3,  now  in  the  Louvre. 

3 See  Plate  cv. 


257 


GREEK  METAL-WORK 


tliat  of  the  marine  deity  who  is  known  as  the  AXto?  Yepojv  or  ‘ Old  Man 
of  the  Sea.’  Controversy  has  raged  fiercely  in  regard  to  tlie  school 
to  wliich  these  reliefs  belong,  some  authorities  claiming  for  them  a 
Corinthian  or  Argive  origin,  others  connecting  them  with  Chalcis  in 
Euboea,  an  undoubted  centre  of  early  work  in  metal,  and  with  the 
Ionic  schools  of  Greek  art.  Ihit  there  was  certainly  a close  connection 
in  the  seventh  century  between  Corinth  and  Chalcis. 

During  the  sixth  century,  the  period  of  the  rise  of  sculpture  and 
vase-painting,  which  has  been  described  as  ‘ the  age  of  colour,’  bronze 
relief-work  ap|)ears  to  have  enjoyed  less  popularity,  but  none  the  less 
continued  to  advance,  and  we  may  quote  as  an  example  of  the  im- 
))rovement  sliown  by  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  a curious  little  figure 
of  Athena  found  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens.  Being  found  among 
the  debris  of  the  Persian  invasion,  it  can  be  dated  before  480  b.c.,  and 
the  style  is  still  decidedly  archaic,  though  characterised  by  the  grace- 
fulness seen  in  so  many  products  of  the  ripe  archaic  period.  Strictly 
speaking,  it  consists  of  two  reliefs  placed  back  to  back,  so  as  to  show 
both  sides  of  the  figure,  and  in  this  respect  it  is  unique.  The  grace- 
fulness, or  Greeks  called  it,  with  the  careful  attention  to 

the  treatment  of  drapery,  is  just  what  we  see  in  the  contemporary 
female  figures  from  the  Acropolis  (p.  81) ; and  it  is  combined  in 
the  present  case  with  a distinct  tendency  to  the  idealism  of  the 
succeeding  age. 


XVe  pass  on  for  a hundred  years  or  so,  and  reach  the  period  when 
bronze  relief-work  reaches  its  height  and  attains  a higher  pitch  of 
popularity  than  ever  before.  It  now  takes  the  form  of  figures  or 
compositions  separately  executed  (eg/^XT^gara)  and  attached  to  the 
object  they  were  intended  to  adorn,  instead  of  being  fashioned  along 
witli  it.  Thus  we  find  them  adorning  the  tops  of  mirror-cases,  the 
backs  of  vases,  or  pieces  of  armour.  Of  these  the  Siris  bronzes  (p.  126)  ^ 
of  course  form  the  finest  example,  and  there  are  also  some  very 
beautiful  emblemata  attached  to  the  handles  of  bronze  vases  found 
in  Rhodes  and  the  neighbourhood.  They  appear  to  have  been  made 
in  the  island  of  Chalke ; the  subjects  include  Dionysos  and  Ariadne, 
and  Boreas  carrying  off  Oreithyia.  The  mirrors  of  this  time  were 
plain  discs  of  bronze,  one  side  of  which  was  highly  polished,  the  other 
occasionally  engraved  like  the  Etruscan,  and  they  were  kept  in  flat 
round  cases  of  bronze,  opening  with  a hinge,  the  tops  of  which  were 
decorated  with  these  emblemata.  The  subjects  of  the  reliefs  are  varied. 


^ Illustrated  oii  Plate  cvi. 


258 


GREEK  BRONZE  RELIEFS 

but  fiequently  of  an  amatory  character,  suggesting'  that  they  were 
legal  (led  as  appropriate  presents  for  ladies.  They  vary  greatly  in  style, 
that,  for  instance,  which  covers  the  incised  mirror  described  on  p.  257, 
having  a finely  conceived  representation  of  a woman  accompanied  by 
an  attendant  and  Eros  ; the  scene  is  evidently  mythological,  but  while 
some  have  seen  in  it  Danae  receiving  the  shower  of  gold,  others  have 
interpreted  it  as  Phaedra  imparting  to  the  nurse  the  secret  of  her 
guilty  love.^  An  even  finer  piece  of  work  is  the  well  known  Hawkins 
relief,  recently  acquired  by  the  Pritish  JMuseum.^  It  was  found  at 
Paramythia  (see  p.  126),  and  has  been  carefully  restored  in  wax  by 
Ilaxman.  The  subject  has  been  disputed,  but  it  is  generally  supposed 
to  represent  Aphrodite  and  Anchises  or  Paris  and  Oenone. 


Examples  of  Greek  jewellery,  and  indeed  of  gold  or  silver  work  in 
any  form,  are  surprisingly  rare  during  the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries,  as  we 
have  already  observed.  It  is  the  more  remarkable,  because  although 


Greek  taste  would  at  all  times  have  avoided  any  tendency  to  vulgar 
display  of  ornament,  such  as  the  Etruscans  were  addicted  to,  yet 
statues,  vase-paintings,  and  other  works  of  art  give  evidence  that 
jewellery  and  ornaments  were  worn  by  Greek  women  throughout  the 
period.  Even  the  Athenian  athletes  of  the  sixth  century  were  not 
averse  to  wearing  ornanients  in  their  hair.^  And  we  know  from 
Pausanias’  description  and  other  evidence  that  the  statue  of  Athena 
Parthenos  was  adorned  with  much  jewellery.  An  earring  found  on 
the  Acropolis  of  Athens  in  1874,  and  dating  from  the  first  half  of  the 
sixth  century,  stands  almost  by  itself.  The  ring  part  is  loop-shaped, 
of  what  is  known  as  the  ‘ woolsack  ’ type,  with  a pendant  in  the  form 
of  a placpie  on  which  are  two  figures  in  relief.  These  have  been 
thought  to  represent  the  Arrhephori  who  made  the  peplos  of  Athena.^ 
But  the  fact  remains  that  between  the  seventh-century  plaques  of 
Kameiros  and  the  treasures  from  the  Crimea  which  we  shall  shortly 
describe,  the  goldsmith’s  art  can  only  be  illustrated  by  a few  finger- 
rings  or  pairs  of  earrings,  or  by  the  quasi-Oriental  objects  found  in 
many  of  the  tombs  of  Cyprus  which  belong  to  this  time.  For  the 
rest,  as  we  have  seen,  we  must  be  content  with  what  Etruria  has 
to  tell  us. 

In  Cyprus,  on  the  sites  of  Amathus,  Curium,  and  Marion,  it  is  not 
unusual  to  find  heavy  gold-plated  armlets  terminating  in  lions’  heads. 


- Ibid. 

■*  Joimi.  llcll.  iStnd.  ii.  p.  J^24. 

259 


^ See  Plate  cvii.  for  tliis  subject. 
3 Cf.  Time.  i.  0. 


GREEK  METAL-WORK 


often  adminibly  designed,  and  earrings  of  various  types,  the  commonest 
being  of  wire  twisted  into  a lioop  and  terminating,  like  the  armlets,  in 
lions’  headsd  Cypriote  tombs  are  notoriously  difficult  to  date,  but  it 
seems  probable  that  these  types  cover  the  fifth  century.  The  typical 
Greek  earring  of  the  period  is  in  the  form  of  a disc  ornamented  with 
a rosette,  or  else  of  the  spiral  form  already  observed  in  Cyprus  ; there 
is  also  a type,  of  which  a pair  from  Melos,  in  the  British  INluseum,  forms 
a good  example,  with  a conical  pendant  attached  to  a flat  upper  part 
with  filigree  rim.  In  Asia  JNlinor  there  is  found  a type  in  the  form  of 
a hoop,  to  the  lower  part  of  which  is  attached  a cluster  of  globules, 
recalling  the  Homeric  TpuyXrjva  fxopoevTa.^  Though  hardly  coming 
under  the  head  of  personal  ornaments  we  must  mention  here  for  the 
beauty  of  its  design  a gold  cylindrical  box  from  Kameiros,  in  the 
British  Museum,^  on  the  top  of  which  is  a figure  of  Eros  in  relief, 
leaning  against  a column  and  playing  with  a toy  resembling  the 
modern  bandilore  ; on  the  bottom  is  a Nereid  on  a dolphin  carrying 
the  helmet  of  Achilles.  The  date  is  not  later  than  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century. 

The  goldsmith’s  art  in  Greece  reached  in  the  fourth  century  b.c. 
a pitch  of  magnificence  and  beauty  combined  with  delicacy  and 
fertility  of  invention  which  has  never  been  surpassed.  In  no  class  of 
ornaments  is  it  better  illustrated  than  in  the  wonderful  treasures 
obtained  in  the  excavations  of  the  Russian  government  at  and  near 
Kertch,^  the  ancient  Panticapaeum,  a remote  outpost  of  Hellenic 
civilisation  in  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  which  we  now  know  as  the 
Crimea.  It  was  a colony  of  Miletus  in  Asia  Minor,  founded  in  the 
sixth  century  b.c.,  and  in  the  fourth  century  was  in  alliance  with 
Athens,  with  which  city  it  enjoyed  extensive  commercial  relations,  as 
we  learn  from  some  of  the  private  orations  of  Demosthenes. 

A tomb  explored  as  long  ago  as  1831  on  a site  known  as  Koul-Oba 
was  found  to  contain  a male  and  female  skeleton  surrounded  by  rich 
gold  ornaments,  silver  vessels  and  other  furniture.^  The  woman  wore 
a diadem  of  electrum  embossed  with  monsters  and  floral  ornaments,  a 
necklace  of  pendants  and  a collar,  and  on  her  breast  were  two  large 
medallions  of  Athena  Parthenos,  the  type  of  the  head  being  evidently 

^ See,  for  instance,  Bi'it.  Miis,  Excavations  in  Cypi'us,  pis.  13,  14  ; also  Myres,  Cypi'us  Mus»  Cat.y 
p.  122.  Examples  from  Curium  are  given  on  Plate  cviii. 

As  worn  by  Hera  {II.  xiv.  183). 

^ Plate  CVIII. 

■*  They  are  all  in  the  Hermitage  Museum  at  St.  Petersburg. 

® See  Newton,  Essays  on  Art,  p.  377. 

2C0 


PLATE  CITII 


liKM'.K  ( .(>1  1 1\\  nk  K ()l  MIL  I II  III  (lATl'm  I ‘.A, 

(HKliril  MLM'UM) 


rLATE  nx 


fiOU)  ORNA.MKN'I'S  FROM  THE  CRIMEA 

( T.\(;K,  si,  I'KIKUSlil'Kl,) 


CRIMEAN  COLD  ORNAMENTS 

derived  from  the  chryselephantine  statue  of  Plieidias  (p.  97).'  The 
man  wore  a gold  tiara,  a tore  ornamented  with  figures  of  Scythian 
horsemen  and  bracelets  terminating  in  Sphinxes,  and  his  armour  was 
plated  with  gold.  From  the  sumptuous  contents  of  this  tomb  it  has 
been  supposed  that  it  must  contain  the  remains  of  an  Archon  (the 
title  ot  the  local  rulers)  and  his  queen. 

At  Nikopolis  in  18G2-G3  the  tomb  of  a Scythian  king  was  brought 
to  light-  which  contained  many  fine  gold  ornaments  and  a silver-gilt 
amphoia  which  has  been  described  as  the  finest  extant  specimen  of 
Gieek  i cpoussc  woik  in  this  material.  The  body  is  ornamented  with 
biids  and  fioial  aiabesques,  and  on  the  shoulder  is  a frieze  of  Scythians 
breaking  in  or  grooming  horses ; spouts  in  the  form  of  lions’  and 
horses’  heads  project  from  the  side.  The  composition  of  this  frieze  is 
extremely  spirited  and  lifelike,  and  the  details  of  Scythian  costume 
and  the  local  types  of  horses  are  of  particular  interest.  Among  the 
ornaments  is  a gold  plate  from  a quiver  or  bow-case  with  fine  mytho- 
logical compositions  in  relief,  perhaps  representing  a scene  from  the 
story  of  Theseus.  This  is  thought  to  be  the  work  of  an  Athenian. 
Another  gold  plate  from  a scabbard  was  ornamented  with  a combat 
of  Greeks  and  Scythians,  and  the  handle  of  a sword  with  hunting 
scenes. 

In  18G4  the  remains  of  a priestess  were  found  in  a wooden  coffin  in 
a tumulus  at  Bliznitza,  her  ornaments  forming  a treasure  of  richness 
and  beauty  beyond  description.^  They  include  a sling-shaped  frontlet 
{(T^evhovri),  two  necklaces,  a bracelet,  and  a huge  pair  of  earrings,  or 
rather  pendants,  for  they  appear  to  be  too  large  to  be  worn  in  the  ears, 
and  must  have  been  hun^  over  them  or  attached  to  the  head-dress.^ 

O 

These  consist  of  medallions  with  Thetis  on  a dolphin  bearing  the 
armour  of  Achilles,  from  which  is  suspended  an  elaborate  arrangement 
of  chains  and  pendants,  and  were  probably  intended  to  be  worn  at 
solemn  functions.  With  these  objects  was  found  a gold  coin  of  Alex- 
ander, and,  generally  speaking,  all  the  gold-work  from  Crimean  tombs 
may  be  dated  about  350-320  n.c. 

Sir  Charles  Newton  ^ regarded  this  series  of  ornaments  as  forming 
the  finest  series  of  ancient  jewellery  extant.  The  gold  is  wrought  with 
a delicacy  which  shows  that  the  artist  thoroughly  understood  its 

’ See  Plate  vix. 

2 Stepliani,  Compte-Rendn,  18(14,  pis.  1,  10;  Newton,  Ks.smjs  on  Art,  p.  881. 

2 Stepliani,  op.  cit.  18(5.5,  pi.  1 ; Newton,  o/>.  rif.  p.  88.). 

* See  Plate  cix. 

^ Op.  cit.  p.  808- 


2G1 


CIREEK  METAL-WORK 


(lualities,  but  its  excellence  is  clue  not  so  much  to  an  exc^uisite  taste 
or  to  delicate  manipulation  as  to  mastery  in  modelling.  He  compares 
them  with  a necklace  from  Melos  and  a sceptre  from  Tarentum,  which 
form  the  best  examples  of  this  period  in  the  British  JMuseum  collection, 
and  exhibit  the  same  combination  of  filigree  and  coloured  vitreous 
enamels,  and  with  a bracelet  and  pair  of  earrings  from  Capua  with 
lions’  heads,  as  examples  of  perfection  in  repousse  work.  Great  fer- 
tility of  invention  is  shown  in  the  earrings,  of  which  there  are  two 
main  types,  one  of  twisted  wire  ending  in  lions’  heads,  the  other  with 
a round  disc  masking  the  hook,  to  which  are  attached  medallions  and 
pendants  in  the  form  of  an  Eros  or  Victory.  The  main  effect  of  these 
ornaments  is  due  to  the  felicitous  combination  of  small  figures  in 
repousse  with  filagree  and  granulated  patterns,  and  with  vitreous 
enamel  inlaying.  Precious  stones,  it  may  be  noted,  are  usually  avoided, 
except  in  finger-rings. 

It  is  perhaps  an  open  c^uestion  whether  the  Kertch  ornaments  are 
to  be  regarded  as  of  local  workmanship  or  as  importations  from  Athens. 
A like  difficulty  recurs  in  regard  to  the  fine  painted  vases  of  a slightly 
earlier  period  which  are  often  found  in  the  Crimean  tombs,  presenting 
the  characteristics  of  the  Attic  ‘late  fine’  style  (p.  179).  But  among 
these  is  a vase  signed  by  Xenophantos,  who  calls  himself  an  Athenian, 
a fact  which  seems  to  imply  that  he  was  no  longer  resident  in  his  native 
city,  and  to  justify  us  in  supposing  that  at  this  period — i.e.,  subsequent 
to  the  fall  of  Athens  in  404  li.c. — there  was  a migration  of  Athenian 
artists  to  various  parts.  If  so,  it  is  likely  that  goldsmiths,  as  well  as 
vase-painters,  were  attracted  to  a friendly  colony  where  there  was  an 
opening  for  them  to  carry  on  the  trade  which  found  more  scope  in 
the  demands  of  luxurious  barbarians  than  in  the  straitened  circum- 
stances of  conquered  Athens. 

Of  late  years  the  region  of  Southern  Russia  has  acquired  an  unen- 
viable notoriety  on  account  of  the  extensive  forgeries  which  have 
doubtless  been  inspired  by  the  finds  at  Kertch.  The  tiara  of  Saita- 
phernes  and  its  melancholy  history  will  be  fresh  in  the  memories  of 
all,  and  is  better  allowed  to  pass  into  oblivion,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  it  did  not  stand  alone.  JM.  Tyszkiewicz,  in  his  entertaining 
Souvenirs  of  an  Old  CoJIeetor,^  says  : — ‘ For  some  years  past  the  forgery 
of  gold  objects  has  been  increasing,  and  bas  extended  to  countries  where 
swindlers  Avere  once  hardly  known.  The  chief  new  centres  of  the 
forgery  of  gold  ornaments  are  the  Crimea  and  adjacent  districts, 

* Kng-.  trails.,  p.  102. 

2G2 


PLATE  CX 


.A'l'EK  C.RKKK  (JOI.D  ORNAMICXTS 
(nNiiisn  museum) 


PLATE  CXI 


lll'.I.I.KX  ISTIC  SILVKK  WORK 

(HKMISH  museum) 


GREEK  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 

Roumania,  and  Syria.  . . . The  unanimous  admiration  of  artists  and 
aichaeologists  for  the  splendid  jewels  furnished  by  the  numerous  tumuli 
of  the  Crimea  and  Southern  Russia  inspired  some  rogues  with  the  idea 
of  imitating  and  selling  modern  articles  made  in  the  same  style.  A 
factory  of  false  jewellery  was  founded  at  Kertch.'  He  tells  an  amusing 
story  of  some  gold  articles  and  a silver  plaque  which  he  nearly  bought, 
taking  the  bad  features  for  barbaric  details,  but  was  stopped  by  Count 
StroganofF  who  knew  of  the  Kertch  factory.  ‘ The  style  of  the  for- 
geries,’ he  says,  ‘ can  be  recognised  in  other  articles  which  have  found 
their  way  into  museums  . . . but  it  is  necessary  to  distrust  all  works 
of  art  coming  from  Southern  Russia.’ 

The  ornaments  from  the  Crimea  are  in  every  way  typical  of  the 
best  achievements  of  Greek  gold-workers  in  the  fourth  century ; but 
there  are  examples  from  other  sites  which,  if  on  a smaller  scale,  are  not 
really  inferior  in  merit.  Some  of  the  finger-rings,  for  example,  are 
engraved  on  the  bezel  (which  is  of  plain  gold  without  any  setting) 
with  designs  of  great  merit,  imitating  the  intaglios  of  the  period.  The 
British  Museum  collection  contains  very  beautiful  specimens  of  neck- 
laces and  earrings  from  Eretria,  IMelos,  and  Kyme  in  Aeolis,  in  which 
the  principle  of  decoration  is  (as  at  Kertch)  a combination  of  elaborate 
chain-work  with  pendants  in  the  form  of  little  covered  jars,  rosettes, 
or  buds,  or  more  elaborately-designed  figures  of  Sirens,  Cupids,  or 
Victories.  From  Southern  Italy  there  are  two  very  noteworthy 
objects  in  the  same  collection  : a sceptre  from  Tarentum  which  is 
crowned  with  a Corinthian  capital  surmounted  by  an  apple,  and  has 
the  stem  covered  with  filigree  work  ; and  a crown,  also  from  Calabria, 
of  very  delicate  filagree  patterns  interspersed  with  Cupids.^ 

In  all  this  Greek  gold-work  of  the  finest  period  the  guiding  prin- 
ciple is  to  regard  the  workmanship  as  of  more  importance  than  the 
material,  a principle  which  we  have  already  noted  as  adhered  to  in 
the  engraved  gems.  The  intrinsic  worth  of  the  metal  is  nothing,  so 
long  as  it  affords  facilities  for  exquisite  workmanship  and  unlimited 
play  of  fancy.  In  such  objects  as  bracelets  and  crowns,  however, 
which  required  more  severity  of  treatment  than  earrings  or  necklaces, 
freedom  and  naturalism  are  not  in  the  same  degree  conspicuous.  In 
the  succeeding  century  the  delicacy  of  workmanship  preserves  almost 
the  same  high  level,  but  simplicity  and  taste  give  way  to  over-elabora- 
tion and  meretriciousness. 

1 Plate  cx.  j?ives  specimens  of  the  jewellery  of  this  period,  including  the  sceptre  and  ornaments 
from  Eretria,  Melos,  and  Kyme. 

2C3 


GREEK  METAL-AVORK 

Before  quitting  the  subject  of  gold  ornaments  it  may  be  of  interest 
to  quote  some  further  remarks  of  Count  1 yszkiewicz  on  the  subject  of 
imitations  and  forgeries/  ‘ No  metal,’  he  says,  ‘lends  itself  so  easily  to 
forgeries,  owing  to  the  fact  that  av  hen  it  is  pure  it  oxidises  little  even 
after  the  la])se  of  centuries,  and  takes  no  patina.  . . . Up  to  recent 
years  Rome,  Naples,  and  Florence  were  the  well-known  laboratories  of 
these  imitations,  which  were  often  brought  to  a high  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. The  elder  Castellani  ...  a skilful  and  clever  jeweller,  was  the 
first  to  discover  tlie  secret  of  the  manuhicture  of  Etruscan  jewellery,  a 
subject  Avhich  he  studied  profoundly.  . . . After  many  attempts  he 
succeeded  in  imitating  the  tiny  golden  grains  with  which  Etruscan 
jewels  are  usually  ornamented,  but,  to  tell  the  truth,  though  he  found 
out  how  to  solder  these  grains  on  to  the  surface  of  the  jewel,  he  was 
unable  to  make  the  little  balls  as  small  as  those  of  the  Etruscans — at 
least  as  the  ones  on  the  finest  specimens,  for  the  Etruscan  goldsmiths 
put  large  grains  on  coarser-made  jewellery.  The  Avorkmen  of  the  Casa 
Castellani  used  frequently  to  undertake  Avork  outside  the  atelier,  and 
turned  the  skill  Avhich  they  had  acquired  there  to  good  account  in  the 
service  of  SAvindlers.  . . . But  public  suspicion  has  noAv  been  aroused, 
and  . . . even  at  the  public  sales  after  the  death  of  Alessandro  Cas- 
tellani a considerable  number  of  these  gold  ornaments  Avere  left  Avithout 
a purchaser.’ 

‘ In  Florence  swindling  concerned  itself  Avith  another  branch  of 
gold  ornaments,  which  it  imitated  to  perfection.  These  AA^ere  the  large 
gold  balls,  sometimes  solid  and  generally  stamped,  decorated  Avith 
Etruscan  subjects.  The  Avork  is  A^ery  carefully  executed,  and  it  is 
easy  to  be  taken  in.  Naples  does  not  shine  in  the  perfection  of  its 
pseudo-antique  jcAvellery.  The  treatment  is  coarse,  heavy,  pretentious, 
and  often  absurd.’ 


Greek  work  in  chased  silver  is  comparatively  rare,  at  any  rate 
as  compared  Avith  that  of  the  Roman  period ; but  the  fact  appears  to 
be  that  it  Avas  little  used  for  works  of  art  before  the  Hellenistic  period. 
That  Avas  the  age,  Avhen,  as  already  noted  in  Chapter  ix.  (p.  183),  painted 
vases  began  to  go  out  of  favour,  and  Avith  the  increase  of  AA^ealth  and 
luxury  Abases  of  metal  came  into  general  use  for  domestic  and  decoratiA^e 
purposes,  ihus  a new  industry  arose,  and  in  Asia  JMinor  there  sprang 
up  an  important  school  of  caelatores  or  sihxr-chasers  of  Avhom  Fliny 
giv^es  some  account.”  The  first  place  lie  accords  to  IMentor  (about 


‘ Souvenirs,  p.  159. 


204 


^ Hist.  Nat.,  xxxiii.  p.  154. 


SILVER-WORK 


350  B.C.),  for  two  cups  by  whom  Crassus  the  orator  paid  four  hundred 
pounds ; other  famous  names  were  Akragas,  Boethos  and  ]\Iys,  who 
made  cups  decorated  with  Cupids,  Centaurs,  Bacchic  and  hunting- 
scenes,  which  were  preserved  at  JBiodes.  Other  chasers  of  renown 
lived  at  C5^zicus,  Mytilene,  and  Ephesus.  Zopyros  made  a cup  repre- 
senting the  trial  of  Orestes  by  the  Areopagus,  Pytheas  one  with 
Ulysses  and  Diomede  carrying  off  the  Palladion.  After  the  conquest 
of  Asia  in  189  b.c.  Lucius  Scipio  carried  off  gold  and  silver-chased 
vases  to  the  weight  of  fifteen  hundred  and  fourteen  hundred  pounds 
respectively. 

Besides  chased  vases  we  have  a few  examples  of  silver  statuary, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  figure  of  a boy  playing  with 
a goose,  in  the  British  IMuseum,  dated  by  coins  found  with  it  near 
Alexandria,  at  about  240  b.c.^  Tlie  interest  of  this  figure  lies  in  its 
subject,  which  as  we  have  seen  (p.  137)  was  characteristic  of  the  period, 
these  genre  conceptions  being  associated  with  the  sculptor  Boethos 
of  Carthage.  ’ A statuette  of  Sarapis  in  the  same  collection  was  found 
with  the  Paramythia  bronzes  (p.  126)  ; it  is  a fine  piece  of  Hellenistic 
work. 

Greek  silver  vases  are  distinguished  by  the  simple  refinement  of 
their  form  and  the  delicate  chasing  of  the  ornaments  ; they  begin  in 
the  third  century  b.c.,  but  most  existing  specimens  belong  to  the 
Roman  Imperial  age.^  The  Romans,  however,  were  large  collectors 
of  antique  specimens  (as  in  tlie  case  of  Crassus  noted  above),  and 
many  of  these  they  closely  imitated.  Hence  in  tlie  vases  of  the  Bosco 
Reale  treasure  and  other  famous  specimens,  such  as  the  Corsini  vase, 
and  those  from  Hildesheim  and  from  Bernay,  in  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale,^  we  see  reflected  the  spirit  of  the  Hellenistic  Age,  just  as  it 
is  in  the  Pompeian  wall-paintings. 

Three  methods  of  decoration  are  found  in  the  silver  vases  with 
reliefs.  Either  the  figures  are  in  repousse,  which  is  the  general  rule, 
or  they  were  chiselled  out  like  sculptured  reliefs  ; sometimes  these  two 
methods  are  combined.  Thirdly,  they  were  made  separately  and 
soldered  on,  like  the  Siris  bronzes  and  the  attachments  to  the  mirror- 

* Plate  CXI. 

2 The  chaser  Boethos  mentioned  above  was  a native  of  Bithynia,  and  therefore  entirely  distinct 
from  the  sculptor. 

^ Of  the  two  vases  g'iven  on  Plate  cxi.,  the  smaller  is  of  the  Ptolemaic  period.  The  other  was 
found  in  the  island  of  Chalke,  near  Rhodes,  and  probably  dates  from  the  second  century  n.c. 

^ See  Daremberg  and  Sag’lio,  Diet,  des  Antiqu.  s.v.  caklatuha,  and  for  the  Bosco  Reale 
Treasure,  Monuments  Fiat,  vol.  v. 

265 


GREEK  METAL-WORK 


cases  and  handles  of  bronze  vases  already  described.  In  this  case  they 
were  known  as  cmblemata  or  crustae.  Examples  of  the  chiselling 
process  are  rare,  but  there  are  two  fine  examples  of  the  Roman  period  : 
a vase  at  Naples,  with  the  Apotheosis  of  Homer,  and  one  at  Munich 
with  Trojan  captives,  in  both  cases  with  very  low  reliefs.  The  great 
silver  vase  from  Nikopolis  in  the  Crimea,  described  above,  is  an  example 
of  the  chasing  process,  except  for  the  heads  of  lions  and  winged  horses, 
which  are  made  separately  in  repousse  and  attached. 


‘2  Of) 


INDEX 


Notk. — Xames  of  artisU-,  with  a Jew  exceptions,  will  he  found  classified 

under  the  heading  artists. 


Aijydos,  arcli  at,  3.'). 

Achaeaiis,  13,  20. 

Achilles,  shield  of,  23. 

Aegean  civilisation,  13. 

Islands,  art  of,  15,  79. 

Aeg-ina,  treasure  of,  18,  246;  temple  in,  39; 
sculpture  in,  85  If ; pediments  of  temple, 
86 ; gems  in  style  of  sculptures  from,  211, 
218  ; early  coinage  of,  225. 

Aetnaei,  on  coins  of  Katana,  230,  237- 

Agias  of  Lysippos,  125. 

Agonistic  types  on  coins,  232. 

Agrigentum  (Akragas),  temples  at,  35,  37,  38 ; 
coins  of,  236. 

Aineos,  tombstone  of,  147. 

Alahastron,  165. 

Alexander  the  Great,  3,  109,  124,  128  ; sarco- 
phagus of,  128  ; painting  of,  159  ; on  gems, 
21-5,  216 ; on  coins,  240,  241. 

Allegorical  paintings,  157,  158. 

Alphabet,  Greek,  .5,  26  ; on  coins,  230. 

Amazon,  statue  of,  110  ; sarcophagus  so  named, 
160. 

Amorgos,  primitive  idols  from,  15. 

Amphiprostyle  temples,  35. 

Amphora,  163 ; black-figured,  173 ; Panathe- 
naic,  6,  162,  173  ; Nolan,  180  ; on  Athenian 
coins,  231. 

Amyklae,  throne  at,  25. 

Animals  on  gems,  204,  206,  208  ; on  coins,  23f). 

Antefixal  ornaments,  18.5. 

Antioch,  personified,  136. 

Aphrodite,  of  Knidos,  118;  of  Melos,  134  ; other 
statues  of,  63,  107  ; heads  of,  119  ; Anadyo- 
mene,  157  ; on  vase,  180. 

Apollo,  throne  of,  25  ; temples  of,  39,  49,  78  ; 
statues  of,  supposed,  73,  76,  79,  87,  88,  91  ; 
of  Tenea,  76;  of  Kanachos,  84;  Sauro- 
ktonos,  118;  Citharoedos,  120  ; Belvedere, 
134. 

Apoxyornenos  (>f  Lysippos,  125. 

Apulia,  vases  of,  18.3. 


Arch,  how  treated  by  Greeks,  .33. 

Archaeology,  evidence  of,  compared  with  lite- 
rary, 20  ff,  58  ; value  of  coins  for  study  of, 
223. 

Archaic  art,  character  of,  5 ; conventions  of, 
72,  211  ; smile  in,  76;  period  of,  in  sculp- 
ture, 72  If  ; in  jiainting,  14.3  If  ; in  vases, 
169  ff;  in  terra-cottas,  187  If,  196  ; in  gems, 
200  ff ; in  coins,  238. 

Archaistic  sculpture,  58. 

Architects.  See  Artists. 

Architectural  sculpture,  55,  77,  80,  93,  99  ff, 
106,  112,  119,  121,  131. 

Architecture,  oldest  in  Cireece,  18,  22,  29  fl  ; 
domestic,  29,  52 ; origin  of  Greek,  33  ; 
Doric,  35 ff;  Ionic,  45 ff;  Corinthian,  50; 
secular,  51  ; use  of  styles  of,  in  Greece,  51  ; 
use  of  terra-cotta  in,  184. 

Argonauts  in  vase-painting,  151. 

Argos,  school  of  sculpture  at,  83,  109  ; temple 
of  Hera  at,  110,  112. 

Aristion,  stele  of,  82. 

Aristotle  quoted,  150. 

Arkesilaos,  King  of  Cyrene,  171. 

Arrhachion,  statue  of,  73. 

Art-criticism  in  anti(juity,  54. 

Artemis,  temple  of,  at  Ephesus,  48,  122  ; on 
coins  of  Ephesus,  233,  238. 

Artists : — 

(1)  Chersiphron,  4f) ; Cossutius, 

51  ; Iktinos,  39,  40,  42  ; Kallikrates,  40  ; 
Libon,  39;  Metagenes,  49;  Miiesikles, 
42  ; Pythis,  49  ; Theodores,  49. 

(2)  Sculptors — 

(r/)  primitive  : Butades,  74  ; Daidalos, 
.5,  21,  72  ; Dipoinos,  74  ; Skyllis,  74  ; 
Smilis,  74  ; Telekles,  74. 

(5)  archaic  : Ageladas,  f}4  ; Archermos, 
75;  Alxenor,  79;  Antenor,  83;  Aris- 
tokles,  82 ; Athenis,  75  ; Bathykles, 
25,  77  ; Bupalos,  75  ; Chrysothemis, 
84;  Hermes,  76;  Endoios,  81;  Eute- 

2G7 


IND 

Artists  : (2)  Scu/ptors  {continued)  : — 

lidas,  84;  Glaukos,  74;  Kalloii,  85; 
Kaiiaclios,  84;  Kitylos,  78;  Kritios,88; 
Melas,  75;  Mikkiades,  75;  Nesiotes, 

88  ; Oiiatas^  71,  85  ; Rhoikos,  00,  74  ; 
Tlieodoros,  00,  74. 

(6*)  fifth  century : A^orakritos,  107  ,’  Al- 
kameiies,  98,  107  ; Kalamis,  90  ; Kalli- 
niaclios,  50,  02,  109 ; Kolotes,  107  ; 
Kresilas,  108;  Lykios,  109;  Myron, 
05,  92;  Paionios,  98,  108;  Plieidias, 
40,  95  ff ; Polykleitos,  54,  57, 

109  If;  Praxias,  109;  Pythagoras,  91; 
Strongylion,  109  ; Theokosnios,  00, 
107. 

{d)  fourth-century;  Bryaxis,  121  ; Danio- 
phon,  124  ; Euphranor,  128  ; Kephiso- 
dotos,  115  ; Leochares,  121,  128  ; 
Lysippos,  57,  05,  124  ; Praxiteles, 

110  ff ; Seilanion,  08,  128  ; Skopas, 
119  ff ; Thrasymedes,  128  ; Timotheos, 
121,  128. 

{e)  later  : Agasias,  184 ; Agesandros, 

188  ; Apollonios,  188  ; Aristonidas, 
08,  182  ; Athenodoros,  188  ; Boethos, 
187;  Chares,  182;  Eutychides,  180; 
Pasiteles,  01  ; Polydoros,  188 ; Tauris- 
kos,  188  ; Xenokrates,  54. 

(8)  Painters — Action,  158  ; Agatharchos,  152 ; 
Alexandros,  159  ; Antiphilos,  158  ; Apel- 
les, 150  ; Apollodoros,  158  ; Aridikes, 
148;  Aristeides,  150;  Boularchos,  145; 
Charmadas,  144;  Deinias,  144;  Ekphantos, 
148;  Eumaros,  145,  140,  172;  Euphranor, 
150;  Eupompos,  155;  Hygiainon,  144; 
Jaia,  142;  Kimon,  140;  Kleanthes,  148, 
144  ; Kraton,  145 ; Melanthios,  155  ; 
Mikon,  152:  Nikias,  141,  150;  Niko- 
machos,  150  ; Pamphilos,  155  ; Panainos, 
98,  147,  152;  Parrhasios,  154;  Pausias, 
155;  Pauson,  152;  Philokles,  148,  140  ; 
Polygnotos,  112, 148  ff ; Protogenes,  157 ; 
Saurias,  140  ; Telephanes,  148  ; Theon, 

3 58  ; Timanthes,  3 55  ; Timomachos,  158; 
Zeuxis,  15.8. 

(4)'Fu.se-;>um^cr.y— Amasis,  178;  Andokides, 

3 75;  Aristophanes,  178 ; Assteas,  188 ; Bry- 
gos,178;  Duris,  3 78;  Epiktetos,170;  Ergi- 
nos,  178  ; Ergotimos,  172  ; Euphronios, 
377  ; Exekias,  178;  Ilieron,  178;  Ka- 
chrylion,  170;  Klitias,  172;  Meidias, 
178;  Nikosthenes,  3 75;  Pampliaios,  370 ; 
Phintias,  3 70  ; Python,  188;  Xeno- 
phantos,  3 79. 

•2()8 


EX 

(5)  Geni-engrax'ers — Athenion,  210  ; Boetho, 
23  0 ; Dexanienos,  212;  Epimenes,  209; 
Mnesarchos,  209 ; Olympios,  212  ; Ona- 
tas,  212 ; PJirygillos,  212  ; Pyrgoteles, 
215  ; Syries,  209  ; Theodoros,  209. 

(0)  Coin-engravers — Euainetos,  Kimon,  Ne- 
uantos,  Theodotos,  228. 

(7)  Metal-workers  — Novius  Plautius,  254  ; 
Mentor,  204;  Akragas,  Boethos,  Mys, 
Pytheas,  Zopyros,  205. 

Artists’  signatures,  .58  ; on  vases,  175  ff ; on 
gems,  209,  212,  215  ; on  coins,  228. 

Aryballos,  105. 

Asia  Minor,  art  in,  14,  112,  121  ff’,  129  ff ; archi- 
tecture ill,  45,  48,  51  ; archai9  sculpture  in, 
77  ff ; early  painting  in,  145  ; terra-cottas 
from,  190,  198  ; coins  of,  288,  242. 

Asklepios,  temple  of,  at  Epidauros,  128. 

Askos,  105. 

Assyrian  art,  5,  27  ; textile  fabrics,  27,  170  ; 
cylinders,  204. 

Athena,  statue  of,  at  Troy,  28  ; statues  of,  by 
Pheidias,  55,  58,  96,  97  ; other  statues,  81, 
118;  birth  of,  how  represented,  100,  144, 
178;  contest  of,  with  Poseidon,  102;  on 
Pergamon  frieze,  182  ; bronze  figure  of, 
258  ; gold  relief  with,  200. 

Nike,  temple  of,  47,  100. 

Athenian  Demos,  painting  of,  1.54. 

lekythi,  101. 

sculptors  of  fifth  century,  107  ff. 

sepulchral  reliefs,  120. 

terra-cottas,  194,  198. 

Athenians,  Treasury  of,  at  Delphi,  88. 

Athens,  temples  at,  40,  47  ; buildings  on  Acro- 
polis of,  41,  47,  81,  100,  107  ; other 
buildings,  51  ; sculptures  at,  00  ; hieratic 
tendencies  in  art  at,  71,  178 ; archaic 
school  of  sculpture  at,  80  ff ; as  centre  of 
art,  89,  95,  171  ff,  202,  and  see  181  ; paint- 
ings at,  140  ff  ; school  of  painting  at,  150  ; 
coins  of,  229,  281,  259. 

Acropolis  of,  excavations  on,  56,  80 ; 
sculptures  from,  64,  80  ff,  118  ; other  finds, 
147,  102,  175. 

Athletes,  statues  of,  7,  78,  88,  111,  125. 

Athletic  schools  of  art,  88,  91,  109. 

Athletics,  influence  of,  on  art,  7,  84 ; on  vases, 
180. 

Atlas  on  metope  from  Olympia,  95. 

Atreus,  tomb  or  ^treasury’  of,  17. 

Attalos,  129. 

Attic  vases,  172  ff;  ephebi,  180;  legends  on 
vases,  180  ; and  see  Athenian. 


INDEX 


Babylonian  cylinders,  204. 

Barbarians  in  art,  130. 

Bassae.  See  Phigaleia. 

Beehive  tombs,  17,  2!). 

Black-figured  vases,  IGG,  109,  172  ff;  subjects 
on,  173. 

Boeotia,  early  art  in,  70  ; pottery  of,  109;  coins 
of,  237  ; early  fibulae  fi*om,  250. 

Bracciano,  bronze  from  lake  of,  125. 

Branchidae,  statues  from,  78. 

Brick,  use  of,  in  architecture,  31,  184. 

Bronze,  early  work  in,  19,  244 ; plate  decora- 
tion in,  22,  32,  05 ; use  of,  in  sculpture, 
57,  05  ; processes  in,  (JO  ff  ; ornamentation 
of,  08 ; statues  or  statuettes  in,  84,  90,  93, 
90,  109,  111,  119,  123,  125,  120,  130; 
relief-work  in,  120,  257  ff ; use  of,  in 
Etruria,  247,  252  ff  ; in  Greece,  250  ft' ; 
engraved  work  in,  252  ff,  250 ; mirrors, 
253  ff ; eistae,  253  ff. 

Bronze-Age  in  Greece,  8,  244. 

Bronze-foundry,  on  vase,  08. 

Brooches.  See  Fibulae. 

Bullae,  250,  251. 

Burial,  methods  of,  20  ; use  of  vases  for,  103. 

Butades,  74,  190. 

Caelatorem , 204. 

Calumny,  picture  of,  157- 

Cameos,  Greek,  215. 

Campania,  vases  of,  183. 

Canon  of  Polykleitos,  .54,  111. 

^ Canting  ’ types  on  coins,  233. 

Carrey’s  drawings,  100  ff'. 

Caryatides,  48,  107. 

Castellani,  Sig.  A.,  220,  250,  204. 

Casting  of  bronzes,  65  ; of  coins,  227. 

Catagrapha,  147. 

Centaurs,  94,  99. 

Ceramicus,  120,  105. 

Cervetri,  paintings  from,  148. 

Chalcis,  as  art-centre,  245,  258. 

Chalke,  bronze  vases  from,  258. 

Charioteer  from  Delphi,  90;  on  Mausoleum 
frieze,  122. 

Chasing  of  metal,  243,  204  ff. 

Children  in  sculpture,  117,  137. 

Chios,  school  of  sculpture  in,  74,  75. 

Choragic  monument  of  Lysikrates,  50. 

Chronology  of  Greek  art,  7 ff  j of  Mycenaean 
civilisation,  13  ; of  architecture,  51  ; of 
vases,  109,  17*5 ; of  terra-cottas,  193  ; of 
coins,  225  ff,  238  ff. 

Chryselephantine  statues,  59,  90,  97. 


Cireuinlitio,  04. 

Cire  perdu  process,  00. 

Cidue,  Etruscan,  248,  253  ff. 

Civilisation,  earliest,  of  Greece,  .3,  8,  lift. 

Clay,  models  in,  (Jl,  00,  74;  sculpture  in,  71, 
180;  processes  in,  l(J51f,  189  ff;  uses  of, 
184  ; varieties  of,  used  for  terra-cottas,  190  ; 
and  .see  Pottery,  Terra-cotta. 

Clazomenae,  sarcophagi  of,  146 ; coins  of,  238. 

Coin-engravers.  See  Artists. 

Coins,  works  of  art  reproduced  on,  59,  233  ; 
compared  with  gems,  212  ; use  of,  for  study 
of  Greek  art,  222  ff ; historical  value  of, 
223  ; aesthetic  aspect  of,  224  ; invention 
of,  225  ; materials  used  for,  220  ; technical 
processes  for,  227  ; dies  and  moulds  for, 
228 ; engravers  of,  228 ; inscriptions  on, 
228  ff;  types  on,  230  ff;  commercial  and 
religious  associations  of,  231  ; geographical 
classification  of,  234  ff ; artistic  classifica- 
tion of,  238  ff'. 

Colossus  of  Rhodes,  132. 

Colouring  of  statues,  0,  03,  80  ; of  temples,  0, 
4"3  ; of  bronzes,  ()8  ; of  terra-cottas,  191. 

Colours,  used  by  early  painters,  141  ; by  Poly- 
gnotos,  150  ; on  vases,  100  ; for  terra-cottas, 
191. 

Column,  early  type  of,  18  ; Doric,  43  ; Ionic,  40. 

Columnar  figures,  71,  72,  79,  187,  197,  198. 

Comedy,  influence  of,  on  vases,  182. 

Commercial  centres  in  Greece,  early,  28  ; aspect 
of  coin-types,  231. 

Construction,  methods  of,  at  Tiryns,  31  ; in 
early  Greece,  32,  33  ; Doric,  45. 

Copies  of  statues,  50 ; on  coins,  59,  233. 

Copper  implements,  12. 

Corinth,  sack  of,  138 ; early  painting  at,  143  ; 
votive  tablets  from,  144,  100  ; influence  of, 
in  Etruria,  148,  248  ; pottery  of,  100,  172  ; 
coins  of,  228,  231  ; personified  on  mirror, 

— O i . 

Corinthian  art  exemjjlified  in  chest  of  Kypselos, 
25  ; architecture,  50  ; vases,  172. 

Corneto,  paintings  from,  160. 

Costume,  Mycenaean  and  Homeric,  20,  200  ; 
on  terra-cottas,  194. 

Crete,  early  civilisation  of,  12,  10 ; seals  from, 
10,  205  ; pottery,  10,  142 ; frescoes,  17, 
142;  early  sculpture  in,  74,  70;  coins  of, 
237. 

Crimea,  paintings  from,  100;  vases  from,  179  ; 
gold  ornaments  from,  200  ff;  silver  vase 
from,  201,  200. 

Croesus,  78. 

2G9 


INDEX 


Cuirass  from  Olympia^  2o(5. 

Cult-statues,  (>,  70. 

Curium,  j^old  ornaments  from,  2G0. 

Cyclades.  See  Aegean  Islands. 

Cyclopean  masonry,  17,  21. 

Cylinders,  lia1>ylonian,  204. 

Cyj>rus,  art  of,  o,  1() ; Achaeans  in,  14  ; Bronze 
A^^e  civilisation  of,  10,  245;  Mycenaean 
finds  in,  19  ; terra-cottas  of,  187,  194,  197  ; 
scarabs  and  cylinders  from,  204  ; fj^old-work 
from,  24(),  259  ; bronze  and  silver  bowls 
from,  247. 

Cyrene,  vase-fabric  of,  171. 

Cyzicus,  coins  of,  288. 

Daggpui-blaok,  engraved,  19. 

Daidalos,  5,  21. 

Dareios,  paintings  representing,  145,  159. 

Death,  Greek  beliefs  concerning,  70,  78,  127, 
10.8,  182,  192. 

deities,  78. 

Decadence  of  Greek  art,  9 ; of  sculpture,  128  ff  ; 
of  vase-painting,  109  ; of  coins,  241. 

Decorative  art,  prehistoric,  19  ; mythical,  23  ff ; 
in  bronze,  247. 

Deities,  early  images  of,  70 ; on  Parthenon 
frieze,  105  ; in  terra-cotta,  187,  190,  197  ; 
converted  to  genre  types,  192,  194  ; on 
coins,  281. 

Delos,  statues  from,  75,  79. 

Delphi,  sculptures  at,  85,  87,  90 ; paintings  at, 
149. 

Demeter,  horse-headed,  71,  85;  of  Knidos, 
128  ; terra-cotta  figures  of,  187. 

Demetrios  Poliorketes,  135,  23.8. 

Demos,  Athenian,  painting  of,  154. 

Denominations  of  coins,  how  noted,  229. 

Dexileos,  monument  of,  127. 

Diadumenos  of  Polykleitos,  111. 

Diamond-point  used  for  gems,  219. 

Dies  for  coins,  227. 

Dipteral  temples,  85. 

Dirke,  punishment  of,  1.83. 

Disc,  bronze  engraved,  257. 

Diskobolos  from  Akropolis,  82  ; of  MyronJ  92. 

Dorpfeld,  discoveries  of,  at  Troy,  15. 

Dolls  in  terra-cotta,  188. 

Domestic  architecture,  52  ; subjects  in  painting, 
154  ; use  of  vases,  108  ; subjects  on  vases, 
179;  use  of  terra-cottas,  192. 

Dorian  invasion,  14 ; schools  of  sculpture, 
75  ff. 

Doric  architecture,  .85  ff ; details  of,  42  ; al)nor- 
mal  examples  of,  80  ; examples  at  Athens, 

270 


40 ; optical  corrections  in,  43 ; wooden 
construction  in,  45  ; contrasted  with  Ionic, 
45. 

column,  prototypes  of,  18,  45. 

temples,  list  and  description  of,  80  If. 

Doryphoros  of  Polykleitos,  111. 

Drama,  influence  of,  7 , l.'iO,  182. 

Draj)ed  types  in  early  art,  72. 

Drapery,  treatment  of,  in  sculpture,  82,  103, 
185  ; on  vases,  178. 

Draw  ing,  on  black-figured  vases,  173  ; on  red- 
figured,  170  ff ; and  see  chapter  viii. 
passim. 

Dress.  See  Costume. 

Drill  used  in  sculpture,  02 ; for  gems,  218, 
219. 

Dying  Gaul,  1.80. 

HERRINGS,  Etruscan,  251 ; Greek,  259  ff,  203. 

Easel-paintings,  140. 

Egypt,  chronological  evidence  from,  13. 

Egyptian  art,  20 ; architecture,  33  ; painting, 
142,  100  ; types  in  terra-cottas,  197,  199 ; 
scarabs,  203  ; influence  in  Greek  gems, 
210;  in  gold-work,  240. 

Eirene  and  Ploutos,  statue  of,  115. 

Electrum  coins,  225,  220. 

Eleusis,  temple  at,  42  ; relief  from,  113. 

hdgin  marbles,  99  ff. 

Elis,  coins  of,  59,  283,  237. 

fg/SXjjgara,  258. 

Emplekton  masonry,  33. 

Encaustic  painting,  142. 

Engraving  on  bronze,  Mycenaean,  19  ; Etruscan, 
252  ff ; Greek,  250.* 

Enkomi,  finds  at,  19. 

Entasis,  43. 

Ephebi  on  vases,  180. 

Ephesus,  temple  at,  48,  78,  122 ; school  of 
sculpture  at,  184. 

Epidauros,  Tholos  at,  .50 ; temple  of  Asklepios 
at,  123. 

Erechtheion,  47,  107. 

Eretria,  terra-cottas  from,  190,  199. 

Eros  (Love),  statue  of,  by  Praxiteles,  118  ; later 
figures  of,  187  ; in  terra-cotta,  190. 

Eryx,  early  construction  at,  33. 

Etruria,  vases  found  in,  101  ; Greek  gems  found 
in,  210 ; early  civilisation  of,  247  ; terra- 
cotta work  in,  248 ; Ionic  influence  in, 
248. 

Etruscan  paintings,  140,  141,  147,  148,  100 ; 
vases,  so-called,  101 ; gems,  210  ff ; inscrip- 
tions, 217,  2.53  ; mirrors,  218,  253  ; metal- 


INDEX 


work^  247  ff ; bronzes,  248,  252  ff ; ^old-work 
and  jewellery,  249  ff ; rhtfie,  254. 

Euboea,  early  temple  in,  34 ; early  coinag'e  of, 
22G  ; and  .see  Chalcis,  Eretria. 

Eumenes  ii.,  181. 

Euphorbos,  over  body  of,  171. 

Europa  on  the  bull,  77,  87. 

Eurynomos,  141,  149,  150. 

Euthymos,  statue  of,  91. 

Evans,  Dr.  A.,  discoveries  of,  10,  205,  and  see 
Crete,  Knossos  ; on  Aeg'ina  treasure,  240. 

Faience  vases,  19  ; mosaic  from  Knossos,  32. 

Farces,  subjects  from,  on  vases,  182. 

Farnese  Bull,  133. 

Female  sex  disting'uished  in  painting,  144. 

types  in  early  sculpture,  72,  81  ff ; in 

terra-cotta,  72,  187,  194. 

Fibulae,  Etruscan,  247,  251  ; Greek,  250. 

Ficoroni  cittfa,  254. 

Filigree  gold-work,  248. 

^Fine’  style  of  vase-painting,  178;  of  terra- 
cottas, 193;  of  gems,  213;  of  coin-engrav- 
ing, 240. 

Forgeries  of  terra-cottas,  200  ff ; of  gems,  220  ; 
of  gold  ornaments,  201,  208. 

Form,  Greek  feeling  for,  0. 

Francois-Vase,  172. 

Fresco-painting,  140;  Cretan  and  Mycenaean, 
17,  19,  142 ; of  Polygnotos,  149  ff ; at 
Pompeii,  137,  154,  15.5,  159. 

Frieze  of  Parthenon,  103  ff;  of  dheseion,  100; 
of  Nike  temple,  100  ; of  Phigaleia,  112  ; of 
Gjolbaschi,  112;  of  Nereid  monument, 
121  ; of  Mausoleum,  122  ; of  Pergamene 
altar,  1.31. 

Funeral  masks  or  busts,  187. 

use  of  vases,  102,  178,  182  ; of  terra-cottas, 

192  ; of  jewellery,  247. 

Furtwiingler  on  Forgeries,  201. 

Gaia,  182. 

Gaiiosis,  ()4. 

Ganymede,  statue  of,  123. 

Gardner,  Professor  E.,  01,  113. 

Gauls,  figures  of,  at  Pergamon,  1-30. 

Gela,  terra-cottas  from,  199  ; coins  of,  237. 

Gem-engravers.  See  Artists. 

Gem-engraving,  Mycenaean,  19,  205  ff ; Greek, 
207  ff;  Phoenician,  209,  210;  Ionic,  209; 
Archaic  Greek,  209  ff;  of  best  period,  211  ff; 
later,  214;  chronology  of,  214 ; hltruscan, 
210  ff ; stones  used  for,  207,  208,  213  ff ; 
technique  of,  219  ; forgeries  of,  220. 


1 Genre  subjects  in  sculpture,  109,  137;  in  paint- 
ing, 154,  158;  on  vases,  174  ff;  in  terra- 
cotta, 194;  on  gems,  213. 

Geometrical  pottery,  109. 

Giants  on  Pergamene  frieze,  182. 

Gilding  of  statues,  04  ; of  bronze,  09  ; of  terra- 
cottas, 191. 

Girgenti.  See  Agrigentum. 

Gjolbaschi  heroon,  112,  151. 

I Gods,  combat  of,  with  giants,  132 ; and  see 
Deities. 

Gold,  cups  of,  19,  244;  early  work  in,  17,  19, 
244  ff’ ; used  in  sculpture,  59 ; whence 
ac([uired,  245  ; methods  of  working,  250. 

ornaments,  Mycenaean,  17,  19,  244  ff ; 

Etruscan,  249  ff ; Greek,  259  ff. 

Gortyna,  coins  of,  237,  240. 

Graeco  - Phoenician  terra-cottas,  197  ; gems, 

j 210. 

I Roman  art,  3,  9,  1.38  ; gems,  214  ; coins, 

I 242. 

Granulated  work  in  gold,  250. 

Greece,  prehistoric,  11  ff;  original  inhabit- 
ants of,  1.3;  Mycenaean  remains  in,  18; 
j Homeric  life  in,  31  ; early  buildings  in,  32  ; 

temples  in,  37,  39,  47  ff;  architectural  styles 
, in,  51  ; secular  and  domestic  architecture 

of,  51  ; early  schools  of  art  in,  73  ff ; coin- 
ages of,  described,  237. 

Greek  art,  study  of,  1 ff ; characteristics  of,  4 
ff ; archaic  features  of,  5,  8,  71  ff ; as 
interpreting  religion,  7 ; chronology  of, 
7 ff ; origin  of,  8,  11  ff,  21  ff ; decadence  of, 
9,  128  ff;  chronological  scheme  of,  10; 
early  stages  of,  11,  70  ; debt  of,  to  Oriental 
races,  25  ff ; method  of  commemorating 
events  in,  85,  89  ; influence  of,  in  Etruria, 
248  ff. 

Greeks,  decorative  instincts  of,  4;  plastic 
instincts  of,  5,  18(> ; religious  ideas  of,  0, 
70,  78,  89,  98,  115,  102,  182,  192,  231. 

Grotes([ue  figures  in  terra-cotta,  188. 

Hades,  painting  of,  149. 

Halikarnassos,  49,  121. 

Harmodios  and  Aristogeiton,  83. 

‘ Harpy  ’ tomb,  78. 

Hawkins  bronze  relief,  259. 

Hebrews,  use  of  signets  by,  203. 

Hegeso,  monument  of,  127. 

Helios  (Sun-god),  132  ; on  coins,  232. 

Hellas,  Hellenes.  See  Greece,  Greeks. 

Hellenistic  art,  9,  129ff;  sculpture,  128  ff; 
terra-cottas,  184,  190  ; reliefs,  137  ; paint- 

271 


INDEX 


159  ; gems,  214  ; cameos,  215  ; coins, 
241  ; silver-work,  2(54. 

llephaistos  as  art- worker,  21. 

Hera,  statue  of,  79, 110  ; temple  of,  aee  Heraioii. 

Heraioii  at  Olympia,  24,  34,  185  ; at  Argos, 
110,  112. 

Herakles,  124,  153,  154,  208  ; labours  of,  80,  95, 
100. 

Heraldic  types  on  gems,  204,  200  ; on  coins,  239. 

Herculaneum,  paintings  from,  159. 

Hermes  of  Praxiteles,  (50  ff,  110  ff  ; Propylaios, 
108. 

Heroon  of  Gjolhasclii,  112. 

Hestia,  Giustiniani,  90. 

Hexastyle  temples,  35. 

Hieroglyphics,  203. 

Historical  art,  130  ; characters  on  vases,  181  ; 
interest  of  coins,  223  ; subjects  on  coins, 
233. 

Hollow-casting  in  bronze,  00  ff. 

Homer,  evidence  of,  on  early  civilisation,  8, 11  ff, 
20,  29  ; art  in,  22,  20 ; vase-painting,  com- 
pared with,  171  ; allusions  to  metal-work 
in,  247. 

Homeric  house,  29 ff. 

Horror  vacui,  207. 

Human  form  combined  with  vase-form,  15  ; 
heads  on  coins,  239  ff. 

Hydria,  105. 

Hypnos  (Sleep),  head  of,  119. 

Iai.ysos,  18  ; painting  of,  157. 

Idealism  in  Greek  art,  98, 113. 

Iktinos.  See  Artists. 

Iliad.  See  Homer. 

Imitations  of  Greek  statues,  58  ; and  see  For- 
geries. 

In  antis  (temples),  35. 

Incised  work  in  bronze,  252,  250.  j 

Incuse  squares  in  coins,  227,  239. 

Individualism  in  fourth  century,  115. 

Inlaying  of  bronze,  09. 

Inscriptions  on  sculptures,  58  ; on  vases,  I7l  ff ; 
on  gems,  213,  217  ; on  coins,  228  ff  ; on  j 
Etruscan  mirrors,  253. 

Intaglio  designs  on  coins,  227  ; on  gems,  see 
Gem-engraving. 

Inventions  of  artists,  73. 

Ionia,  Mycenaean  influence  in,  25,  170,  208. 

Ionic  art,  25,  77  ff,  145, 248  ; architecture,  45  ff ; 
temples,  47  ; pottery,  170  ; gems,  208,  209, 
212  ; metal-work  in  Etruria,  248. 

Iphigeneia,  painting  of,  155. 

Iron  Age,  12. 

272 


Island-stones,  24,  208. 

Isodomon  masonry,  33. 

Issos  mosaic,  159. 

Italy,  Greek  sculpture  in,  3,  50  ; Doric  temples 
in,  37,  38  ; Ionic  temples,  47 ; vases  im- 
ported to,  101  ; vases  of  Southern,  181  ff ; 
terra-cotta  work  in,  185  ; coins  of,  234  ; and 
see  Etruria,  Rome. 

Ivory,  work  in,  19,  59. 

Jewellery,  Mycenaean,  245,  240;  Etruscan, 
249  ff,  255  ; Greek,  259  ff. 

Kairos  of  Lysippos,  124. 

Kalos-names  on  vases,  180. 

Kamarina,  coins  of,  232,  237. 

Kameiros,  terra-cottas  from,  198  ; gold  orna- 
ments from,  247,  200. 

Kanahos,  01. 

Kantharos,  105. 

Katana,  coins  of,  230,  237. 

Kertch,  gold  ornaments  from,  200  ff ; coins,  202. 
Kimon,  statesman,  40,  95,  180  ; painter,  140, 
177  ; coin-engraver,  228. 

King,  C.  W.,  on  modern  gems,  220. 

Kistophori,  242. 

Knidian,  Aphrodite,  118 ; treasury  atDelphi,  188. 
Knidos,  Demeter  from,  123  ; terra-cottas  from, 
198. 

Knights  in  Parthenon  frieze,  104. 

Knossos,  10,  32,  142  ; coins  of,  2.37. 
Knucklebone-players,  painting  of,  159. 

Kore,  name  for  a terra-cotta  figure,  188,  192. 
Kotyle,  105. 

Krater,  103. 

Kroton,  coins  of,  235. 

Kyathos,  103. 

Kylix,  105;  red-figured,  170 ff;  white-ground, 
i 179. 

Kypselos,  chest  of,  24. 

Kythera,  bronzes  from,  55,  130. 

Labyrinth  at  Knossos,  32. 

Ladas,  93. 

Lampsacus,  coins  of,  238. 

Landscape  in  sculpture,  133,  137 ; in  painting, 
151,  159. 

Laocoon,  133,  217. 

Lapiths  and  Centaurs,  94,  99. 

Larnaka,  terra-cottas  from,  194. 

‘ Late  fine ' style  on  vases,  179. 

Lehes,  103. 

Lekythos,  105  ; used  at  funerals,  102,  179. 

Lem  Ilian  Athena,  97. 


INDEX 


Lesclie  at  Delphi^  149. 

Linear  painting,  148. 

Lion  Gate  at  Mycenae,  17,  18. 

Literary  records  of  sculptors,  54,  73  ff;  of 
painters,  143  ; of  metal-work,  247,  2G4. 

traditions,  21  IF,  70 IF;  and  see  Homer. 

Locri,  reliefs  from,  189. 

Lucania,  vases  of,  183. 

Lucian,  54. 

Ludovisi  throne,  90. 

Lycia,  art  in,  78,  112,  121. 

Lydians,  early  coinage  of,  225. 

Lyseas,  tombstone  of,  147. 

Lysikrates,  monument  of,  50. 

Lysippos,  124 ; influence  of,  125,  132,  13G. 

Macedon,  coins  of,  241. 

Maenad,  type  of,  120. 

Magna  Graecia,  vase-painting  in,  181  IF ; coins 
of,  234. 

Male  types  in  early  art,  73,  82. 

Mantineia,  base  from,  118. 

Marble,  use  of,  in  architecture,  42  ; varieties  of, 
GO ; methods  of  working  in,  G1  ; used  for 
paintings,  141,  147,  15G,  IGO. 

Marsyas,  statue  of,  93. 

Masks  in  terra-cotta,  187. 

Masonry,  primitive,  21,  29,  32. 

Mausoleum,  49,  121. 

Mausolos,  49,  122. 

Megalopolis,  buildings  at,  51. 

Megara,  statue  of  Zeus  at,  GO. 

Meg  (iron  at  Tiryns,  30. 

Meliaii  reliefs,  189. 

Melos,  Aphrodite  of,  134 ; coins  of,  2.33. 
Metal-work,  early,  19,  23,  244  IF ; mythical,  21, 
22,  247  ; Mycenaean,  19,  244  fl‘ ; Etruscan,  j 
247  IF ; Greek,  255  IF ; classification  of,  ' 
243. 

Metals,  where  found,  245. 

Metopes  in  Doric  temples,  45  ; of  Selinus,  77  ; 
of  Olympia,  95 ; of  Parthenon,  99 ; of 
Theseion,  lOG  ; of  Thermon,  145. 

Miletus,  temple  at,  49,  84. 

AMiniature  paintings,  142. 

Minos,  IG  ; palace  of,  32. 

^Minoan’  civilisation,  IG  ; pottery,  142. 

Mirrors,  Etruscan,  218,  252  fF ; Greek,  257, 
258. 

Modelling  in  clay,  74,  190. 

Models,  use  of  by  sculptors,  G1  ; for  bronze, 
GG. 

Monochrome  painting,  14.3. 

Mouldings,  Doric,  48  ; Ionic,  4G. 


Moulds  for  terra-cottas,  190  ; for  coins,  228. 

Mummius,  55,  138. 

Mummy-portraits,  142,  1.59. 

Mycenae,  early  art  of,  13,  17, 19  ; tombs  of,  17  ; 
Lion  Gate  at,  17,  18  ; engraved  ring  from, 
205 ; gold-work,  245. 

Mycenaean  art,  13  ft' ; in  Egypt,  14;  civilisa- 
tion, 13  IF ; in  relation  to  Homer,  20,  22  ; 
inherited  by  Ionia,  25,  170,  208;  architec- 
ture, 17,  29,  32  ; metal-work,  17,  19,  245  ; 
gems,  18,  24,  20G1F;  frescoes,  19,  142; 
pottery,  19,  142. 

Myrina,  terra-cottas  from,  19G,  198. 

Myron,  91  IF. 

Mythical  works  of  art,  21  IF. 

Mythology  on  vases,  I7l  IF ; in  terra-cottas,  187, 
194,  19G  ; on  gems,  208,  211,  215,  217 ; on 
coins,  231  ; on  Etruscan  mirrors,  253  ; 
Egyptian,  197,  203. 

Naukratis,  terra-cottas  from,  197,  199. 

Naxos,  statues  from,  79  ; coins  of,  231. 

Necklaces,  Etruscan  gold,  251. 

Nereid  monument,  112,  121,  1.5G. 

Newton,  Sir  Charles,  quoted,  225,  23G, 

2G1. 

Nike,  statues  of,  75,  lOG,  108,  1.35  ; on  coins  of 
Terina,  229,  235 ; temple  of,  see  Athena 
Nike. 

Nikopolis,  silver  vase  from,  2G1,  2GG. 

Niobid,  120. 

Nudity  in  early  art,  73 ; in  later,  118. 

OcHA,  temple  on  Mount,  34. 

Octostyle  temples,  35. 

Odysseg  referred  to,  22,  28,  and  see  Homer ; 

subjects  from,  149. 

Oinochoe,  1G5. 

Olympia,  Temple  of  Zeus  at,  89  ; pediments,  94 ; 
metopes,  95  ; Pheidias  at,  9G ; statue  of 
Zeus,  97  ; temple  of  Hera  at,  see  Heraion  ; 
other  sculptures  from,  108,  117  ; terra-cotta 
architecture  at,  185  ; bronze  cuirass  from, 
25G  ; reliefs  from,  257. 

Olympian  deities  on  Parthenon  frieze,  104 ; on 
vases,  178. 

Olympos  personified,  102. 

Opportunity,  statue  of,  124. 

Optical  corrections,  39,  43. 

Orchomenos,  Mycenaean  remains  from,  18  ; 

statue  of  Apollo  from,  7G. 

Oriental  influence  in  Greek  Art,  5,  25  ff,  33  ; in 
architecture,  45  ; in  pottery,  172  ; in  gems, 
20G,  210 ; in  Etruscan  metal-work,  248. 

273 


G.  A.— 18 


INDEX 


Oriental  use  of  precious  stones  and  rings^ 
208. 

Original  works  of  Greek  sculpture,  57. 

Orontes  personified,  1 8(5. 

Ostracism,  1(58. 

Pakstum  (Poseidonia),  temples  at,  8(5,  88  ; vase- 
painters  of,  188  ; coins  of,  227,  235. 

Painted  vases.  See  Vases. 

Painters.  See  Artists. 

Painting,  compared  with  sculpture,  (5,  189 ; 
early  Cretan  and  Mycenaean,  17,  19,  142; 
used  for  statues,  (58  ; technical  processes  of, 
140;  history  of,  148  ft’ ; development  of,  at 
Athens,  148  ; illustrated  by  vases,  142  ft’, 
151,  177  ft ; influence  of,  in  terra-cottas, 
19(5. 

Palaces,  prehistoric.  See  Knossos,  Tiryns. 

Palatitza,  house  at,  52. 

Palaeographical  evidence  of  coins,  280. 

Panathenaic  procession,  104;  vases,  162,  178. 

Paramythia  bronzes,  126,  259. 

Parthenon,  40  ; sculptures  of,  99  ft. 

Pasiteles,  use  of  models  by,  61. 

Patina  of  bronzes,  (59. 

Pausanias,  4,  24,  84,  54,  98,  100,  117,  149. 

Pedimental  figures,  80,  86,  98,  100  If,  119, 
123. 

Peisistratos,  172. 

Pelasgians,  18 ; masonry  named  from,  29,  32. 

Peloponnesian  AVar,  114. 

Peloponnesus,  temples  in,  89  ; schools  of  art 
in,  74,  83. 

Pelops  and  Oinomaos,  94. 

Peplos  of  Athena,  105. 

Pergamon,  sculptures  from,  108,  131  ; school 
of  sculpture  at,  129  ft ; altar  at,  131. 

Pericles,  8,  95  ; bust  of,  109. 

Peripteral  temples,  85. 

Perseus,  77. 

Persian  M'^ars,  80,  89. 

Personifications,  116,  186,  154,  157,  158;  on 
coins,  229. 

Perspective,  attempts  at,  147. 

Perugia,  silver  reliefs  from,  248. 

Petworth,  marble-head  at,  119. 

Pheidias,  sculptor,  95  ft ; estimate  of,  98,  118  ; 
influence  of,  118  ; style  of,  on  coins, 
239. 

Pheidon  of  Argos,  225. 

Phiale,  165. 

Phigaleia,  temple  at,  39 ; Corinthian  column 
at,  .50 ; Demeter  at,  7l  ; sculptures  of, 
112. 


Phoenician  howls,  23,  247,  248 ; influence  in 
Greek  art,  26,  28 ; gems,  209,  210. 

Pictographs,  Cretan,  1(5,  205. 

Pictorial  style  in  sculpture,  133,  187  ; on  vases, 
151,  178,  182. 

Pinax,  171  ; (ind  .see  Votive  Tablet. 

Plastic  instincts  of  the  Greeks,  5 ; principle 
in  pottery,  15 ; derivation  of  the  term, 
186. 

Pointing  of  statues,  61. 

Polishing  of  statues,  62. 

Polledrara  bust,  248. 

Polychromy  of  bronze  statues,  68 ; of  vases, 
1(5(5. 

Polygnotos,  painter,  112,  141,  148  fl";  influence 
of,  on  vases,  151,  178,  180. 

Polykleitos,  sculptor,  109  ff. 

Polykrates,  ring  of,  74,  209. 

Polyxena,  })ainting  of,  150. 

Pompeii,  paintings  of,  187j  154,  155,  159. 

Poi'os  figures,  60,  80. 

Portraits  in  Greek  art,  109,  123,  124;  on  gems, 
215  ; on  coins,  240,  241. 

Poseidon,  102,  144. 

Poseidonia.  See  Paestum. 

Potters’  quarter  at  Athens,  see  Ceramicus ; 
wheel,  165  ; workshop,  interior  of,  166. 

Pottery,  subsequent  to  Dorian  invasion,  14,  24, 
1(59;  earliest  painted,  15, 16, 169;  Mycenae- 
an, 19  ; of  Cyprus,  16,  19  ; of  Crete,  142  ; 
uses  of,  by  Greeks,  162  ; made  in  imitation 
of  metal,  183  ; and  see  Vases. 

Praeneste,  bowls  from,  248;  cistae  from,  2.53, 
254. 

Praxiteles,  sculptor,  115  ; works  in  style  of, 
119,  122. 

Precious  stones.  See  Gem-engraving. 

Prehistoric  age  of  Greece,  11  IF,  21. 

Priestesses,  statues  of,  81. 

Primitive  pottery,  15,  166,  169  ; sculpture,  70  ; 
terra-cottas,  187. 

Propylaea,  40;  paintings  in,  151,  158. 

Prostyle  temples,  35. 

Pseudoperipteral  temples,  35. 

Pyxis,  165. 

Quintilian,  quoted,  7,  98,  111. 

Kationalis.m  in  Greek  religion,  115,  192. 

Ilealism  in  Greek  art,  130  ff. 

Red-figured  vases,  169,  175  ff ; influence  of 
Polygnotos  in,  151,  178 ; decadence  of, 
179,  181;  subjects  on,  180;  influence  of, 
on  Etruscan  mirrors,  252. 


274 


INDEX 


Reliefs^  treatment  of,  in  sculpture,  (Jo,  D37  ; on 
coins,  225  ; in  terra-cotta,  lUl);  in  bronze, 
257  ff. 

Relig'ion  of  Greeks,  influence  of,  on  art,  (1,  70, 
89,  98,  115;  as  evidenced  in  terra-cottas, 
192  ; in  ^ems,  209  ; in  coin-types,  281. 

Rliainnus,  temple  at,  88  ; sculptures  from, 
107. 

Rhodes,  as  centre  of  commerce,  28  ; school  of 
sculpture  in,  129,  182  ; vases  from,  170 ; 
terra -cottas  from,  198,  198  ; coins  of, 
282. 

Rhyton,  1(55. 

Rings,  use  of,  by  Orientals,  208  ; by  Greeks, 

209,  210  ; of  Gyges  and  Polykrates,  209  ; 
engraved,  208. 

River-gods  on  coins,  281,  282,  287. 

Roman  coins,  242  ; silver-work,  205. 

Rome  as  source  of  modern  knowledge  of  art,  3, 
50 ; as  centre  for  Greek  art,  55. 

Roof-tiles,  185. 

Ruskin  on  Greek  coins,  224. 

Russia,  Southern,  gold  ornaments  from,  200  ff ; 
forgeries  from,  202. 

Sala3iis,  battle  of,  commemorated,  80. 

(Cyprus),  19  ; and  see  Enkomi. 

Samos,  early  school  of,  74  ; statue  from, 
79. 

Samothrace,  relief  from,  79  ; Nike  from,  1.85. 

Santorin.  See  Thera. 

Sarcophagi  of  Sidon,  120  ; of  Clazomenae,  14(! ; 
of  terra-cotta,  180. 

Sardinia.  See  Tharros. 

Sardonyx  used  for  cameos,  215  ; for  vases, 

210. 

Satyr,  of  Praxiteles,  118  ; on  archaic  gem,  21 1 ; 
and  see  Marsyas. 

Scaraboids,  204,  209,  212. 

Scarabs,  Egyptian,  203,  209  ; Greek,  209,  211  ; 
Phoenician,  210  ; Etruscan,  210  ff. 

Scene-painting,  152. 

Schliemann,  Dr.  H.,  11,  15,  17,  244. 

Sculptors.  See  Artists. 

Sculpture  compared  with  painting,  0,  1.39; 
sources  of  knowledge  of,  54 ; ancient 
writers  on,  54 ; technique  of,  01  ff ; in 
bronze,  05  ff ; earliest  efforts  in,  70  ff ; in 
clay,  71 ; earliest  existing  examples  of,  70  ff; 
archaic,  70  ff ; of  best  period,  89  ff ; fourth 
century,  115  ff ; Hellenistic,  128  ff ; Etrus- 
can, 248. 

Scythians  represented  in  metal-work,  201. 

Seals,  209,  218  ; Cretan,  10,  205. 


Seianti  Thanunia,  figure  of,  249. 

Selinus,  temples  at,  88 ; sculptures  from,  77  ; 
coins  of,  2.38. 

Sepulchral  monuments.  See.  Tombstones. 

^Severe’  period  of  red-figured  vases,  170. 

Shapes  of  vases,  108,  178. 

Shield  of  Achilles,  23. 

Sicily,  early  architecture  in,  88  ; temples  in,  80, 
.38  ; early  sculpture  from,  77  ; terra-cottas 
of,  199 ; gems  from,  212  ; coins  of,  212, 
282,  285  ff. 

Sidon,  sarcophagi  of,  120. 

Signatures  of  artists,  on  statues,  58  ; on  vases, 
172  ff ; on  gems,  209  ff ; on  coins,  228. 

Signet-rings,  Oriental,  208  ; Greek,  209. 

Sikyon,  schools  of  sculpture  at,  83,  124  ; schools 
of  painting,  148,  155. 

Sikyonian  treasury  at  Delphi,  87. 

Silphium,  171,  281,  282. 

Silver,  vase  of,  from  Mycenae,  li) ; first  coined, 
225  ; where  found,  245. 

Silver-work,  248,  244  ; Etruscan,  248  ; Hellen- 
istic and  Roman,  204. 

Siris  bronzes,  125. 

Skopas,  sculptor,  119  ff. 

Soldering  or  welding,  invention  of,  74  ; in  gold- 
work,  250. 

Solid-casting  in  bronze,  (50. 

Sparta,  relief  from,  70. 

Sphyrelaton,  00. 

Stamnos,  103. 

Statues,  removed  from  Greece  or  destroyed,  55  ; 
buried  and  recovered,  50;  ancient  copies 
of,  57 ; restorations  of,  57  ; colouring  and 
gilding  of,  03  ; founding  of,  represented  on 
a vase,  08  ; representations  of,  on  coins,  59, 
84,  97,  288. 

Statuettes.  See  Bronze,  Terra-cotta. 

Stoa  Roikile,  paintings  in,  1.52. 

Stone,  use  of,  in  building,  32,  34, 42  ; for  sculp- 
ture, 00. 

Stones,  used  for  gems,  207,  208,  218  ff. 

‘ Strong’  period  of  red-figured  vases,  177. 

Subjects  on  vases,  178,  180,  182 ; on  gems, 
218,  215,  217  ; on  Etruscan  mirrors, 
25.3. 

Sulla,  55,  1.30. 

Sun-god.  See  Helios. 

Symbolism  on  coins,  281. 

Syracuse,  temples  at,  88 ; coins  of,  228,  235, 
240. 

Tanagua  figures,  190,  198  ff ; influence  of,  on 
later,  190  ; forgeries  of,  202. 


275 


IND 

Tarentum,  terra-cottas  from,  197  ; coins  of,  2o3, 
234  ; sceptre  from,  2(>3. 

Technical  j)rocesses  in  marble,  (II  ft’ ; in  bronze, 
do  ft';  for  vases,  Ido  ft’,  I7d ; for  terra- 
cottas, 189  ; for  j^ems,  219  ; for  coins,  227  ; 
for  Etruscan  ^old-work,  250. 

Te^ea,  temple  at,  40  ; sculptures  from,  119. 

Tempera  })ainting,  140. 

Temple-sculptures,  77,  80,  8d,  93,  100  ff,  lOd, 
112,  119,  121  ft. 

Temples,  development  of,  33  IT,  45  ; types  of, 

35  ; Doric,  35  If ; in  Sicily,  38  ; in  Greece, 

39  ff,  47 ; in  Asia  Minor,  47  ft ; details  of 
construction  in,  42  flf ; Ionic,  45  ff. 

Tenea,  Apollo  of,  7d. 

Terina,  coins  of,  229,  232,  235. 

Terra-cotta  in  architecture,  34,  184 ; Ionic 
inftuence  in,  248 ; used  for  sarcophagi, 
18d  ; for  reliefs,  189. 

figures,  71,  18d  If;  types,  187,  193; 

primitive,  187 ; archaic,  187  ; masks, 
187  ; toys,  188 ; grotesques,  188 ; manu- 
facture of,  189;  uses  of,  191  AT;  from 
Tanagra,  190,  193  flf;  chronology  of,  193, 
195;  hieratictendency  of,  193;  Hellenistic, 
196 ; geographical  classification  of,  197  if ; i 
forgeries  of,  200  ft’. 

Tetrastyle  temples,  35. 

Textile  fabrics  imitated,  27,  1 70. 

Tharros,  gems  from,  210. 

Thasos,  relief  from,  79. 

Thebes,  school  of  painting  at,  15d  ; coins  of, 
237  ; fibulae  from,  25d. 

Themistocles,  1(13. 

Theocritus,  137. 

Theodoros,  sculptor,  etc.,  (Id,  74,  209. 

Thera,  pottery  of,  15,  142. 

Thermon,  painted  metopes  from,  145. 

Theseion,  so-called,  40,  10.5. 

Theseus,  so-called  figure  of,  102  ; in  connection 
with  red-figured  vases,  180. 

Thessaly,  sculptures  from,  79. 

Thurium,  coins  of,  235. 

Tiryns,  palace  at,  17,  21,  29  ff,  34 ; fresco  from, 
19,  241. 

Tokkes,  tombstone  of,  150. 

Tombs,  Mycenaean,  17  ; vases  found  in,  1(11  ff. 

Tombstones,  sculptured,  113, 12(1 ; painted,  141, 
147,  15(1. 

Tools  for  gem-engraving,  219  ; for  coin-engrav- 
ing, 227. 

Tortoise  on  coins  of  Aegina,  226. 

Toys  in  terra-cotta,  188. 

Traditions  of  early  art,  8,  21,  73  ff,  143. 

276 


EX 

Tragedy,  inftuence  of,  on  vases,  182. 

Tralles,  school  of  sculpture  at,  133. 

Treasuries,  Mycenaean,  17,  18 ; at  Delj)hi, 
87. 

Tree,  sacred,  on  gems,  204. 

Triglyphs,  45. 

Tritaea,  ])ainted  tombstone  at,  141,  156. 

Troy,  15  ; sack  of,  painted  by  Polygnotos,  149  ; 
and  .see  158. 

Tyche  of  Antioch,  136. 

Types  in  early  sculpture,  72  ; female,  72,  187  ; 
male,  73;  stereotyped,  on  vases,  174;  in 
terra-cottas,  187,  194;  heraldic,  on  gems, 
206  ; on  coins,  230  ff,  238  ff ; agonistic 
on  coins,  232  ; heraldic  or  canting, 
2.33. 

Typhon,  80. 

Tyszkiewicz  on  modern  gems,  220 ; on  gold 
ornaments,  262,  264. 

Under-wokld,  on  vases,  182  ; deities  of,  187. 

Uses  of  terra-cottas,  191. 

Vacuum,  Greek  abhorrence  of,  207,  238. 

Vaphio  cups,  19,  246. 

Varvakeion  statuette,  58,  97. 

Vase-painters.  See  Artists. 

Vases,  in  human  form,  15  ; earliest  painted,  15, 
142;  ^Minoan’  or  Cretan,  16,  142;  My- 
cenaean, 19 ; geometrical,  169 ; Ionic, 
' 170;  Corinthian,  171  ; black-figured,  172; 

red -figured,  175;  white -ground,  179; 
South  Italian,  181  ; connection  of,  with 
painting,  140,  141,  144,  177,  178,  180  ; not 
Etruscan,  161 ; sites  where  found,  161  ; 
uses  of,  162,  179,  182 ; shapes  of,  163 ; 
technical  processes,  165  ff ; classification, 
169  ; historical  account  of,  169  ff ; subjects 
on,  173,  180  ; Etruscan,  in  bronze,  247 ; 
of  sardonyx,  216  ; of  silver,  261,  265  ; and 
see  Pottery. 

Veil,  paintings  at,  148. 

Vettii,  paintings  in  house  of,  154. 

Victory.  See  Nike. 

Villanuova  period  in  Etruria,  247. 

Vitruvius  ({noted,  35,  45,  50. 

Volute  (Ionic),  4d. 

Votive  tablets,  144,  145,  147,  108 ; vases,  Idl  ; 
terra-cottas,  187. 

Vulci,  vases  found  at,  161  ; Polledrara  tomb  at, 
248. 

W^ALL-PAiNTiNGs.  See  Frcscocs. 

AV’^arrior,  painting  of,  147. 


INDEX 


^V’ax  used  for  casting  bronzes^  ()(j ; for  painting 
statues,  ()4  ; in  painting,  142. 

\V^elding  of  iron,  invention  of,  74. 

AVheel  of  potter,  105  ; of  gem-engraver, 
219. 

Winckelmann,  3. 

IV^omen,  Mycenaean,  costume  of,  20. 

M"ood  in  architecture,  45  ; in  sculpture,  59,  70  ; 
used  for  painting  on,  142. 


I AV^orship  of  dead,  70,  78,  182. 

1 

I Xanthos  in  Lycia,  78,  121. 

Xenokrates  on  sculpture,  54  ; on  painting,  143. 
Xomia,  59,  70,  72,  79. 

Zeus,  temples  of,  38,  39,  50,  93  ; statue  of,  97  ; 
1 giving  birth  to  Athena,  100,  144,  174; 
I altar  of,  131  ; on  coins  of  Elis,  233,  237. 


277 


Printed  by  T.  and  A.  Constable,  Printers  to  His  Majesty 
at  the  Edinburgh  University  Press 


Printed  by  T.  and  A.  Constable,  Printers  to  His  Majesty 
at  the  Edinburgh  University  Press 


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